%  WORLD 


No.  II. 


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GEOGRAPHY 


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MARY   L.    TiALpf^ 

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Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1872,  by 
MARY    LUCY   HALL, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


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PREFACE. 


"  /'\P  making  many  books  there  is  no  end,"  and  it  seems  almost 

V^  presumptuous  in  these  days  to  offer  a  new  school-book. 
Yet,  as  long  as  young  people  of  ordinary  intelligence  are  heard  to 
say,  "  I  never  could  remember  map-questions,"  or,  "  I  've  been 
through  Geography  three  or  four  times,  but  have  forgotten  it," 
new  efforts  must  be  made  to  throw  life  and  interest  into  the  study. 

Geography,  far  from  offering  chiefly  long  lists  of  names  and 
statistics,  as  a  task  for  the  memory,  should  include  the  very 
spirit  of  the  world  we  live  in,  describing  varieties  of  scenery  and 
climate,  and  the  distribution  of  plant-life,  animal-life,  and  human 
life,  over  the  earth. 

In  this  age  of  universal  travel,  when  steam-vessels  and  rail- 
roads have  brought  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  earth  wilhin 
the  limits  of  possible  journeys,  it  is  desirable  for  the  young  student 
to  acquire  a  good  basis  of  geographical  knowledge,  or  at  least 
to  have  his  interest  excited  in  other  lands  and  people,  that  he  may 
read  and  observe  with  intelligence  and  eagerness. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  the  present  volume  to  give  a  multitude 
of  names  to  be  memorized,  but  to  connect  with  the  important 
physical  and  political  regions  such  suggestive  descriptions  as  will 
lead  pupils  to  seek  fuller  accounts  elsewhere,  or  to  travel  with 
interest  and  advantage.  ^ 

The  natural  sciences  are  touched  upon  only  so  far  as  to  make 
the  general  description  intelligible,  yet  in  the  hope  that  the  study 
of  geography  will  naturally  lead  on  to  the  study  of  geology,  astron- 
omy, botany,  zoology,  etc.  History  and  geograpliy  must  always 
be  closely  connected,  since  the  progress  and  development  of  human 
civilization  have  been  so  largely  dependent  upon  physical  condi- 
tions. 

Experienced  teachers  follow  their  own  methods,  yet  the  following 
suggestions  concerning  the  use  of  the  book  may  bo  ol'  some  value. 

July,  1872. 


Before  taking  this  larger  Geography  pupils  are  supposed  to 
have  learned  thoroughly  IVom  "  Our  World,  No.  I.,"  or  some  equiva- 
lent, the  outlines  of  land  and  water,  the  moaning  of  ordinary  geo- 
graphical terms,  and  the  relative  position  and  names  of  .the  different 
countries  of  the  earth  ;  so  that,  without  repetition  here,  the  neces- 
sary allusions  will  be  understood. 

Either  before  or  after  the  detailed  study  of  a  country,  as  the 
teacher  may  prefer,  the  pupil  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the 
map,  after  the  manner  of  the  models  given,  so  as  to  be  able  to  recite 
without  questions,  from  a  mural  mapjor  blackboard  drawing.  The 
map-study,  when  of  large  populous  countries,  where  there  is  much 
to  be  remembered,  will  be  learned  more  easily  if  taken  after  the 
description,  since  it  will  then  have  mor?  interest  for  the  student. 

The  pupils  should  be  encouriigod  to  test  their  knowledge  by 
endeavoring  to  answer  the  OeneraLReviiui  QueMions  vtiihoni  referr 
ence  to  text  or  map.  '  .. 

Each  member  of  the  class  should  be  able  to  gL^je  the  Summaries 
without  aid  of  questions  from  the  teacher.   • 

The  Tables  at  the  end  of  the  book  may  be  used  for  comparing  the 
size  of  different  countries,  lakes,  rivers,  etc.,  as  indicated  in  the 
questions. 

The  Pronouncing  Vocabulary  may  be  used  in  conducting  a 
thorough  test-review  ;  its  very  miscellaneous  character  keeping  up 
a  lively  interest  in  the  recitation,  since  two  consecutive  words 
may  name  a  place  in  one  hemisphere  and  a  plant,  animal,  or  pecu- 
liar custom  of  the  other. 

It  is  believed  that  pupils,  who  have  been  kept  long  enough 
upon  the  Primary  Book  to  be  'entirely  fomiliar  with  its  contents, 
will  be  found  fully  prepared  for  this  volume,  and  that  the  two 
books  will  form  as  complete  a  course  of  geographical  study  as 
can  be  pursued  in  our  common  schools. 

M.  L.  II. 


34o^-: 


TABLE    OF    COKTE'NTS 


PART    I 


Introfluctory 
Definitions 


PAGE 
1 

2 


THE  EARTH. 

Form,  Motions,  etc.      ...  3 

Light. 

Direction      .....  3 

Time 3 

Longitude    .....  4 

Day  and  Night  ...  4 

Hkat. 

Seasons        4 

Zones        .....  5 

Atmospheke 

Winds 5 

Rain,  Snow,  etc.       ...  6 

Climate. 

Latitude       .         .         .         .         r  ■  6 

Climate  of  the  different  Zones  .  7 

Isotherms     .         .         .         .      "  .  7 

THE  CRUST  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Description       ....  7 

The  Ocean. 

Waves,  Currents,  and  Tides  •  .       8 

Classes  of  Islands     .         .         .  '8 

Surface  under  Water   .         .  .  '    9 

The  Land. 

Mountains         •  ,     ■         •         •  9 

Volcanoes     .       i.         .         .  .9 

Plains        .         .         .     «  .         .  10 

Rivers  and  Lakes          .        .  .10 

Plants.  j 
Classification  of        .         .         .10 

Distribution  of     .         .         .  .12 

Uses  of "12 

Animals. 

Distribution  of     .         .         .  .13 

Uses  of 14 

Classification  of  .         .         .  .14 

INHABITANTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Civilization 
Races  .... 
Religion  and  Government. 
Occupations. 

Fishing         .         . 

Agriculture 

Manufactures 

Mines  and  Metals     . 

Cloih     .... 

Paper 

Leather 

Pottery     . 
Trade  and  Commerce 
General  Review  op  Part  L 


PART    II. 

Introductory. 

The  Ancient  World . 

Middle  Ages 

Modern  Times 
Maps  and  Map-Drawing. 

Explanation  of  Ma])s  . 

Maps  of  the  Hemispheres 

Mercator's  Projection  . 


PAGE 

Scale  of  a  Map  ...  28 
Suggestions  for  Map-Drawing      .     28 

NORTH  AMERICA. 
Explorations  and  Colonies        .        32 

Natives 33 

Political  Divisions  ...  34 
Summary  .....  34 
Greenland  ....  35 
Study  of  the  Map  of  North  America  37 
Greenland  (continued)  .  .  38 
British  America  .  .  .  .40 
Summary  .         .         .         .         43 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 

History 43 

Study  "of  the  Map     ...         45 
Description  .         .         .         .         .45 
Atlantic  Slope. 

The  Northern  Section  .  .  .48 
Maine  .....  52 
New  Hampshire  .  .  .  .54 
Vermont  .....  54 
Massachusetts  .  .  .  .54 
Rhodclsland    .         .         .         .         55 

Connecticut 55 

56 

.  58 

59 

.  59 

60 

.  61 

61 

.  62 

63 

.  63 

65 

.  66 

66 

.  66 
67 


New  York 
New  Jersey  . 
Delaware . 
Pennsylvania 
The  Southern  Section 
Maryland     . 
District  of  Columbia 
Virginia 
West  Virginia . 
The  Caroliiias 
Georgia    . 
Florida 
Summary 
Basin  of  the  Mississippi 
Description  . 
The  Southern  Section 


Alabama,  Missis.sippi,  and  Louisiana  67 
Arkansas  and  Missouri  .  .  69 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky  .  .  69 
The  Northern  Section  .         .         .72 

Ohio 72 

Indiana  and  Illinois     .        .        .72 

Michigan 73 

Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  .  .  73 
Iowa         .....         74 

Summary 74 

The  Grazing  District  .  .  76 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  .         .         .76 

Dakota 76 

The  Indian  Territory  .         .         .76 

Texas 77 

Western  Plateau. 

Description  .  .  .  .  .78 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  .  78 
Nevada  and  Utah  .         .         .79 

Colorado  .  ,  .  .  .  79 
Wyoming,  Idaho,  and  Montana  .  79 
Washington  Territory  andOregon  80 
California    .....     81 

Alaska 83 

Summary     .....     83 

MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  AND 
THE  WEST  INDIES. 


PAGE 

Central  America  .  .  .  .86 
Summary  ....         86 

The  West  Indies ....  87 
General  Review  of  North  America    90 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

History 91 

Description  ....  91 
Region  of  the  Andes  .  .  .91 
Study  of  the  Map  ...  93 
United  States  of  Colombia  .  .  95 
Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chili  95 
Patagonia     .....     96 

The  Pampas 96 

Argentine  Republic  .  .'  .  96 
Uruguay  and  Paraguay  .  .  97 
Brazil  .         .      "  .         .         .  97 

The  Selvas  .  "  .  .  .  98 
Guiana  .  .  .  .  .99 
Venezuela  ....  99 
Summary  .  .  .  .  .101 
Special  Terms .         .         .         .       1 02 

THE  EASTERN  CONTINENT. 

Study  of  the  Map  of  Asia-Europe  102 

Southern  Europe. 

Greece 104 

Italy 105 

Sicily        .....       107 

Spain 108 

Portugal 110 

Study  of  the  Map  of  Europe  .  110 
Summary  ....       112 

Middle  Europe. 

Switzerland  .         .         .         .112 

Austria  .  .  .  .  .114 
German  Empire  .         .         .         .115 

Holland 117 

Belgium 118 

Denmark .         .         .         .         .118 

France 118 

Summary  ....       122 

British  Islands. 

England 123 

Scotland 124 

Ireland 125 

Summary  ....       126 

Northern  Europe. 

Norway  and  Sweden     .        .        .127 

Iceland 129 

Russia 130 

Summary  ....       132 

General  Review  for  Europe  .  .  133 
Special  Terras  .         .         .         .133 


Mexico 


84 


ASIA. 

Siberia 

Kamtschatka    . 
Summary     . 
Chinese  Empire 
Summary 
Japan 

Summary     . 
India 
Summary 
'  Turkestan 
Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan 
Persia       .... 
Mohammedan  Countries. 
Ottoman  Empire . 


133 

135 
135 
135 
139 
140 
141 
141 
146 
146 
146 
146 

147 


PAGE 

Turkey  in  Europe  .  .  .149 
Turkey  in  Asia    ....  149 

Syria 149 

Arabia  .....  151 

Study  of  the  Map  of  Asia  .  151 
Summary  .  .  .  .  .152 
General  Review  for  Asia  .        .       1 52 

AFRICA. 

Description  .        .        .        .  .153 

Study  of  the  Map     .         .  .155 

North  Africa. 

Barbarv  States     .        .        .  .156 

Egypt  " 158 

Nubia  and  Abyssinia    .         .  .  158 

Desert  of  Sahara     .        .  .      159 

Summary     .         .         .         .  .  1 59 

Soudan 159 

Region  of  the  Native  Tribes  .  160 

Colonies. 

The  Cape  Lands      .        .  .161 

East  and  West  Coasts  .         .  .161 

Madagascar       .         .         .  .162 

Summary     .         .         .         .  .162 

General  Review  of  Africa  .       162 

Special  Terms      .         .         .  .162 

AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  ISLANDS. 
Description  .  .  .  .163 
Study  of  the  Map         .         .         .165 

Miscellaneous  Review       .        .       167 

TABLES. 

Height  of  the  principal  Mountains  171 

The  longest  Rivers           .         .         .  171 

Areas. 

Some  of  the  largest  Islands     .  .  171 

Some  of  the  largest  Lakes   .         .  171 

The  principal  Countries  .         .  .171 

Population  of  the  principal  Cities  171 
Largest  Cities  of  the  United  States    172 

Vocabulary 173 

LIST  OF  MAPS. 

Map  indicating  Routes  of  Trade  and 
Commerce,  and  Direction  of  Winds 
and  Currents  .  .  .  .  .23 
Maps  of  the  Hemispheres  .  30  and  31 
Map  of  North  America  (Physical)  .  36 
Map  of  British  America  .  .  .  39 
Map  of  the  United  States     .         46  and  47 

57 
64 
71 
75 

89 

92 

100 

103 

HI 

120  and  121 

128 

.   150 

154 


Map  of  Northern  New  England  . 
Map  of  Southern  New  England 
Map  of  the  Middle  States    . 
Map  of  the  Southern  States     . 
Map  of  the  North  Central  States 
Map  of  Mexico,  Central  America,  and 

the  West  Indies   .... 
Map  of  South  America  (Physical) 
Map  of  South  America  (Political)    . 
Map  of  Asia-Europe  (Physical)  . 
Map  of  Europe  (Political) 
Map  of  Central  Europe 
Map  of  the  British  Islands 
Map  of  Asia  (Political) 
Map  of  Africa  ( Pliysic'al  and  Political ) 
Map  of  Australia  and  Islands  (Physical 

and  Political) 

Maps  indicating  Distribution  of  Plants 

and  Animals        .... 


164 


169 


HINTS   TO    TEACHERS. 


THE  author's  views  of  the  object  and  method  of  geographical 
study  are  already  stated  in  the  Preface  to  this  volume.  Two 
facts  must  be  accepted  in  considering  the  book  :  1st.  That  such  teacli- 
ers  and  pupils  as  wish  to  depend  chiefly  on  direct  questions  and  an- 
swers will  not  find  the  style  adapted  to  their  wants  ;  2d.  That  in  order 
to  secure  the  end  in  view,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  pupil  to 
have  studied  thoroughly  some  primary  geography,  and  to  be  familiar 
with  the  general  position  of  the  most  important  countries,  mountains, 
and  rivers  of  the  earth.  Our  World,  No.  1.,  is  the  natural  introduction 
to  this  book,  and  children  who  study  that  at  the  proper  age  will  be 
ready  to  begin  No.  2.  when  from  ten  to  twelve  years  old. 

Pupils  who  have  been  accustomed  to  memorize  their  lessons  will 
at  first  find  it  difficult  to  give  the  more  descriptive  portions  of  the 
text ;  but  they  will  soon  learn  to  state  the  chief  points  clearly  in 
their  own  words,  and  these  points  will  be  more  firmly  impressed  upon 
their  minds  than  if  originally  presented  as  bare  statements.  The  book 
will  probably  produce  its  best  results  when  the  teacher  devotes  a 
part  of  the  time  assigned  to  each  recitation  to  reading  aloud  with 
the  class,  and  explaining  the  text  of  the  next  lesson,  which  can 
then  be  so  well  learned  and  recited  as  to  save  the  time  thus  used 
in  advance.  This  method  is  especially  desirable  when  quite  young 
pupils  first  come  to  the  study  of  the  book.  ^P 

Part  I.  should  be  taken  in  short  lessons,  and  with  directions 
and  aids  from  the  teacher.  The  difiSculty  of  some  of  the  subjects 
there  treated  is  inherent,  and  if  such  topics  as  seasons,  winds, 
tides,  etc.,  cannot  be  fully  understood  by  children  when  going 
through  the  book  for  the  first  time,  they  need  not  be  learned  then 
with  the  same  degree  of  thoroughness  required  in  its  easier  por- 
tions, but  should  be  taken  up  again  at  a  later  period.  Yet  these 
topics  should  not  be  deferred  altogether,  for  the  very  general 
but  connected  idea  of  the  world  as  a  whole,  obtained  by  a  careful 
reading  and  discussion  with  the  teacher,  is  a  good  preparation  for 
the  study  of  the  different  countries.  Whenever  possible,  by  way 
of  illustration   (as  in  the  chapter  on  Plants),   let 'the   pupils   sug- 


gest specimens  familiar  to  themselves ;  and,  if  objects  mentioned 
are  wholly  unknown  to  the  children,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to 
show  specimens  or  pictures  of  them.  Such  topics  as  Inhabitants 
of  the  Earth  (pp.  15  and  16),  the  general  account  of  Occupations 
(p.  17),  etc.,  may  be  read  aloud  in  the  class,  and  reviewed  by  means 
of  general  questions. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  account  of  North  America  (p.  32),  the 
history  of  the  discoveries,  settlements,  etc.,  should  be  learned  thor- 
oughly, while  the  account  of  the.  natives  may  be  read  and  commented 
upon  in  the  class.  Again,  the  account  of  the  settlement  of  the 
Thirteen  Colonies,  which  is  the  introductory  part  of  the  section  on 
the  History  of  the  United  States,  may  be  studied  as  the  lesson,  and 
the. remainder  of  the  section  read  in  the  class. 

The  map-sludies  upon  each  grand  division  should  be  taken  first  in 
the  class  with  open  books,  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  and 
then  learned  thoroughly  for  the  next  lesson  in  connection  with  the 
map-questions  which  follow  them.  In  preparing  the  map-lessone,  the 
intention  has  been  to  give  no  more  names  than  can  be  retained  per- 
manently in  the  memory  of  the  pupil.  Either  the  number  of  towns, 
rivers,  etc.,  referred  to  in  any  state  or  section,  must  seem  limited  to 
persons  familiar  with  that  particular  locality,  or  the  sum-total  must 
swell  to  a  number  of  names  and  positions  far  beyond  the  capacity 
of  any  mind  to  retain,  and  the  pupil  must  be  unable  to  discriminate 
as  to  the  relative  importance  of  these  numerous  places. 

The  summaries  should  be  repeated  with  accuracy  by  each  member 
of  the  class,  and  the  review  questions  at  the  end  of  each  continent 
answered  perfectly,  before  entering  upon  the  study  of  the  next 
division. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  many  teachers  that  habits  of  attention  and 
concentration  are  acquired  by  a  class  accustomed  to  examinations 
upon  topics  read  aloud,  and  that  the  combination  of  this  method 
of  instruction  with  the  exactness  of  recitation  required  for  the  sum- 
maries, reviews,  and  other  portions  of  the  book,  form  one  of  its  im- 
portant features  as  an  aid  in  mental  development. 


OUR   WORLD: 


SECOND    SERIES    OF    LESSONS    IN    GEOGRAPHY 


PART  I. 


INTRO  DUG  TORT. 


IN  all  ages  men  have  been  eager  to  tell  and  to  hear  new  things, 
and  before  books  were  known,  travellers  wandered  abroad,  bring- 
ing home  wonderful  stories  of  unknown  lands.  Among  the  earliest 
writings  of  ancient  nations  are  descriptions  of  the  world  they  lived 
in,  and  from  two  Greek  words,  ge,  "the  earth,"  and  grapho,  "1  de- 
scribe," comes  the  term  Geography,  meaning  a  description  of  the 
earth.  But  we  can  readily  understand  how  imperfect  and  incorrect 
were  these  descriptions,  made  centuries  before  the  American  conti- 
nent was  discovered,  or  even  the  true  form  of  the  earth  was  known. 
To  the  few  civilized  nations  of  those  times,  occupying  only  the 
central  portion  of  the  great  Eastern  continent,  the  rest  of  the  world 
was  a  surrounding  wilderness,  with  vague  limits,  into  which  traders 
and  travellers  opened  pathways  very  slowly,  through  many  dangers 


and  difficulties.  No  railroads  crossed  the  continents ;  no  steamers 
sailed  against  wind  and  tide  ;  no  vessels  were  strong  enough,  and  no 
sailors  skilled  enough,  to  venture  far  from  land.  A  short  coasting 
voyage  in  the  Mediterranean  was  a  great  undertaking  ;  and  after  a 
week's  tedious  journey  on  mules  or  camels,  with  guides,  escort  of 
armed  men,  and  the  necessary  store  of  provisions  and  water,  the 
traveller  was  no  farther  from  home  than  a  man  would  now  find  him- 
self after  a  few  hours'  ride  in  one  of  our  comfortable  railway-cars. 
Thus  it  happened,  while  these  old  nations  were  considerably  ad- 
vanced in  arts  and  manufactures,  and  had  great  poets  and  philoso- 
phers, that  their  wisest  men  were  very  indifferent  geographers,  and 
made  such  mistakes  as  we  should  scarcely  expect  from  school-boys 
of  the  present  time.     Knowing  so  little  of  the  world  beyond,  each 


r 


OUR  WORLD. 


geographer  placed  his  own  country  as  the  central  or  main  portion 
of  the  earth,  describing  the  remainder  according  to  his  imagina- 
tion. The  Hindoos  represented  the  earth  in  the  form  of  a  lotus 
flower,  with  India  and  the  sacred  river  Ganges  in  the  middle,  and 
other  known  countries  on  the  outer  petals.  The  Greeks  made  Mount 
Olympus  the  home  of  the  gods,  and  surrounded  the  earth  by  a  broad 
stream  called  Oceanus.  Even  after  maps  representing  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  with  tolerable  accuracy  were  made,  the  known 
world  included  only  the  southern  part  of  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and 
North  Africa.  A  little  later  the  British  Isles  were  added  to  the 
maps,  and  the  East  Indies,  with  Ceylon  nearly  as  large  as  Hin- 
dostan.  Indeed,  it  is  not  strange  that  great  mistakes  were  made 
upon  those  early  maps,  since  so  little  was  then  known  of  the  true 
form  and  size  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  calculations  required  in  order 
to  project  any  considerable  portion  of  a  spherical  surface  upon  a 
plane.  The  following  sketch  is  a  map  of  the  world  as  drawn  by  an 
ancient  Grecian  geographer. 


The  Earth  as  known  500  B.  C. 

As  civilization  spread,  the  representations  of  the  earth's  surface 
became  more  extended  and  correct.  New  nations  grew  up  along 
the  western  coast  of  Europe,  and  among  them  were  adventurous 
navigators,  who  followed  the  African  coast  around  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  explored  the  shores  of  the  entire  Eastern  Continent,  and  in 
time  crossed  the  ocean,  and  discovered  America.  After  this  the 
surface  of  the  earth  was  explored  in  all  directions  by  land  and  by 
sea,  and  not  only  have  accurate  representations  been  made  of  the 
outlines  and  position  of  all  important  bodies  of  land  and  water,  but 
many  wonderful  truths  have  been  discovered  about  the  earth,  namely, 
—  its  spherical  form  ;  its  position  as  a  planet,  or  one  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  ;  and  its  revolutions,  with  other  planets,  about  the  sun. 
Laws  have  also  been  discovered  which  regulate  climate,  winds, 
clouds,  distribution  of  light  and  heat,  etc.,  —  all  of  which  affect  the 
vegetation  and  animal  life  of  different  parts  of  the  world. 

Geography  now  includes  a  description  of  the  motions  of  the  earth, 
with  its   times  and   seasons  ;    of  the   atmosphere  surrounding  it ; 

Questions. — What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Geography  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
earliest  descriptions  of  the  earth  ?  Why  was  so  little  of  'the  earth  known  to  the  ancient 
civilized  nations  ?  How  did  the  Hindoos  and  Greeks  represent  the  earth  ?  Wliat  part 
of  the  earth  was  best  known  to  the  ancients  ?  What  was  the  progress  of  discovery  ? 
What  facts  and  laws  have  been  discovered  ?  What  does  the  study  of  geography  now 
inclnde ! 


of  the  soils,  rocks,  and  metals  forming  its  crust ;  of  the  varieties 
of  its  surface ;  of  the  forms  of  its  bodies  of  land  and  water ;  and 
an  account  of  its  plants,  animals,  and  inhabitants.  The  whole  world 
is  now  so  well  known  that  the  geographical  books  of  all  modern 
nations  agree  ;  and  by  means  of  small  spheres,  or  globes,  with  the 
outlines  of  land  and  water  traced  upon  them,  even  children  may 
get  a  correct  idea  of  its  entire  surface. 


MAP   QUESTIONS. 

It  is  taken  for  granted  that  pupils  have,  before  beginning  this 
book,  studied  some  primary  geography,  and  learned  the  names 
of  the  different  bodies  of  land  and  water,  and  the  position  of  the 
principal  countries  of  the  earth.  To  study  the  following  lessons 
profitably  they  should  be  able  to  answer  these  general  map  ques- 
tions :  — 

What  are  the  names  of  tlie  grand  divisions  of  land  ?  What  are  the  names  of  the 
oceans  ?  What  three  divisions  are  in  the  northern  hemisphere  ?  What  division  east 
of  North  America  ?  West  of  North  America  ?  North  of  Africa  ?  East  of  Africa  ? 
West  of  Africa  ?  By  what  oceans  is  North  America  bounded  ?  Africa  ?  Asia  ?  By 
what  continents  or  divisions  is  the  Pacific  Ocean  bordered  ?  The  Atlantic  ?  The  In- 
dian ?  By  which  divisions  is  the  Arctic  Ocean  enclosed  ?  Where  is  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico ?  Gulf  of  California  ?  Gulf  of  Guinea  ?  Where  is  Hudson  Bay  ?  Baffin  Bay  ? 
Caribbean  Sea  ?  Mediterranean  Sea  ?  Red  Sea  ?  Black  Sea  ?  Baltic  Sea?  Arabian 
Sea  ?    North  Sea  ? 

Where  is  the  Mississippi  River  ?  Hudson  River?  Nile?  Amazon?  Strait  of  Gib- 
raltar ?  Isthmus  of  Suez  ?  Where  is  Cajie  Horn  ?  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ?  Where  are 
the  West  Indies  ?  East  Indies  ?  British  Isles  ?  Japan  Islands  ?  Where  is  New- 
foundland ?  Iceland  ?  Greenland  ?  Terra  del  Fuego  ?  Where  are  the  Andes  Moun- 
tains ?  Rocky  Mountains  ?  Alleghany  Mountains  ?  Alps  ?  Himalaya  ?  Pyrenees  ? 
Atlas  Mountains  ?  Where  is  British  America  ?  United  States  ?  Mexico  ?  Brazil  ? 
England  ?  Ireland  ?  Norway  and  Sweden  ?  Holland  ?  France  ?  Spain  ?  Italy  ? 
Greece  ?  Germany  ?  Turkey  ?  Russia  ?  Siberia  ?  China  ?  India  ?  Aiabia  ? 
Egypt  ?     Portugal  ? 


DEFINITIONS. 

Parallel  lines  are  lines  running  in  the  same  direction,  thus : 

Perpendicular.  —  When  one  line  stands  upon  an-  "      ' 

other  line  without  inclining  to  either  side,  it  is  per- 
pendicular to  it,  thus : 

a  a  is  perpendicular  to  bb. 

Angle.  —  An  angle  is  the  difference  of  direction  between  two  lines  meeting  at 
a  point 

Lines  in  the  same  direction  never  meet. 

A  very  slight  difference  of  direction  makes  a  very  ___^  -^ 

small  angle. 

The  greater  the  difference  of  direction  the  larger  the 
angle. 


The  length  of  the  lines  does  not  affect  the  size  of  the  angle. 

A  right  angle  is  an  angle  formed  by  two  lines  meeting  per- 
pendicularly. 

An  acute  angle  is  fnialler  than  a  right  angle.  <^ 

An  obtuse  angle  is  larger  than  a  right  nngle. 


THE  EARTH.  —  LIGHT. 


■      1 

3  ! 


Sphere. —  A  solid  body,  every  point  of  tlic  surface  of  which  is 
equally  distant  from  its  centre. 


Circles.  —  If  a  sphere  is  cut  through  by  a  plane  the  sections  form  circles. 

If  the  sphere  is  cut  through  the  centre,  the  sections  form 
great  circles,  and  the  centre  of  each  circle  coincides  with  the 
centre  of  the  sphere. 

All  other  sections  make  small  circles. 

All  great  circles  of  the  same  sphere  are  of  the  same  size.  Small 
circles  are  smaller,  as  the  section  is  made  farther  from  the  centre 
of  the  sphere,  thus: 


Circumference.  —  The  boundary  line  of  a  circle. 
Every  point  of  the  circumference  is  ecjually  distant  from  the 
centre. 


Diameter.  —  A  straight  line  connecting  opposite  points  of  the 
circumference  and  passing  through  the  centre ;  thus,  A  B. 

Radius.  —  Half  the  diameter,  as  C  B,  or  a  straight  line  drawn 
from  the  centre  of  a  chicle  to  any  point  of  the  circumference. 

Horizon.  —  The  circle  that  appears  to  bound  the  view,  or  the  line  where 
earth  and  sky  seem  to  meet. 
Vertical  —  Perpendicular  to  the  ground  or  horizon. 


THE    EARTH 


Before  beginning  a  thorough  study  of  the  different  countries  of 
the  earth,  it  is  well  to  learn  several  facts  that  have  a  great  influence 
upon  its  vegetation,  animals,  and  inhabitants. 

1.  That  the  earth  is  a  spheroid,  or  slightly  flattened  sphere,  con- 
tinually turning  on  its  own  axis,  making  one  revolution  in  twenty- 
four  hours. 

2.  That  while  thus  turning  on  its  axis  the  earth  is  also  moving 
round  the  sun,  at  an  immense  distance  from  it,  making  an  entire 
circuit  in  one  year  ;  and  that  the  orbit,  or  path  in  which  the  earth 
moves,  is  not  exactly  circular,  but  slightly  elliptical,  or  oval. 

3.  That  the  earth  receives  light  and  heat  from  the  sun. 

4.  That  all  parts  of  its  surface  are  not  lighted  and  heated  equally. 
In  order  to  explain  these  facts,  and  to  refer  easily  to  different 

parts  of  the  earth,  we  imagine  certain  circles  upon  its  surface,  as 
represented  in  the  following  figures,  or  upon  a  terrestrial  globe. 


An  imaginary  line  passing  through  the  centre  of  the 
earth  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  its  daily  motion 
represents  its  axis. 


The  extremities  of  the  axis  at  the  surface  of  the  earth 
are  called  the  north  and  south  poles. 


A  circle  around  the  earth  half-way  between  the  poles 
divides  it  into  two  half  spheres  or  hemispheres,  and  is 
*  called  the  equator. 


Other  circles  parallel  with  the  equator  are  used  for  in- 
,j  dicating  distances,  and  are  called  parallels. 


Circles  passing  through  the  poles  are  called  meridians, 
and  mark  distances  east  and  west. 


Questions.  —  What  facts  must  be  learned  before  beginning  to  study  the  different 
countries  ?  What  is  the  axis  of  the  earth  ?  Where  are  the  poles  ?  What  is  the 
equator  ?     What  circles  are  called  parallels  ?     What  are  meridians  ? 


--  -Af 


Fig.  1. 


The  circumference  of  every  circle  is  divided  into 
360  equal  parts,  called  degrees.  Each  degree  is  di- 
vided into  sixty  equal  parts,  called  minutes,  and  each 
minute  into  sixty  equal  parts,  called  seconds.  They 
are  indicated  thus  :  5°  20'  31",  which  reads,  five  de- 
grees, twenty  minutes,  and  thirty-one  seconds. 

LIGHT. 

1.  Owing  to  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth,  only  one  half  of  its 
surface  can  be  lighted  at  once.  The  side  that  is  turned  to  the  sun 
receives  light,  while  the  opposite  half  remains  in  shadow. 

2.  The  motion  of  the 
earth  on  its  axis  brings 
different  parts  of  its  sur- 
face toward  the  light  and 
into  the  shadow  once  ev- 
ery twenty -four  hours, 
making  day  and  night. 

Direction.  —  Wherever  we  may  be  on  the  earth's  surface,  as  that 
point  turns  into  the  light  we  call  it  sunrise,  though  it  is  we  who  are 
moving  toward  the  sunlight  and  not  the  sun  rising  to  us.  The  part  of 
the  horizon  where  the  sun  appears  to  rise  is  called  east,  and  directly 
opposite  is  west.  Standing  with  the  right  hand  toward  the  east  and 
the  left  hand  toward  the  west,  we  face  the  north,  and  directly  oppo- 
site is  south.  All  intermediate  directions  between  north  and  cast  are 
commonly  called  northeast,  between  east  and  south  southeast,  between 
south  and  west  southwest,  and  between  west  and  north  northwest. 

Time.  —  The  daily  revolution  of  the  earth  is  from  west  to  east, 
and  of  two  places  on  its  surface  the  one  farther  eastward  turns  into 
the  light  first,  or  has  sunrise  earlier  than  the  other.  If  a  man  about 
to  travel  from  Boston  westward  observes  the  time  of  sunrise  by  his 
watch  to  be  five  o'clock,  he  will  find  on  reaching  Chicago  that,  by 
the  same  watch,  the  sun 
rises  at  a  few  minutes 
after  six,  showing  that 
the  sun  is  then  about  an 
hour  high  at  Boston.    At 

any  place  the  same  dis-  Fig.  2. 

tanee  west  of  Chicago  it  would  be  then  about  an  hour  before  sunrise. 

Questions.  —  How  many  degrees  in  every  circumference,  and  liow  divided  ?  Wliy 
is  only  half  the  tartli's  surface  liglited  at  once  ?  Is  the  same  lialf  always  lighted  ? 
Whatissunri.se?  Wliere  is  east  ?  west?  north?  south?  In  what  direction  does  the 
earth  turn  on  its  axis  ?  Is  sunrise  earlier  in  Boston  or  Chicago  ?  and  why  ?  Will 
a  watch  be  .slow  or  fast  that  is  talcen  from  New  Orleans  to  New  York  ? 


OUR  WORLD. 


#'fe 


^ 
^ 


it"^ 


a 


Fig  3. 


Time,  therefore,  must  be  regulated  for  each  place  by  making  it 
twelve  o'clock  just  at  noon,  or  when  the  sun  has  reached  the  higli- 
est  point  above  the  horizon  ;  and  clocks  or  watches  are  put  forward 
or  backward  according  as  they  are  taken  east  or  west.  As  the 
earth  revolves  tlirough  3G0  degrees  in  twenty-four  hours,  it  follows 
that  one  hour  of  time  must  be  allowed  for  a  twenty-fourth  part  of 
that  distance,  namely,  15  degrees.  Thus  the  difference  of  time  be- 
tween two  places  can  be  easily  calculated  by  their  distance,  or  the 
distance  by  the  time,  counting  fifteen  degrees  for  every  hour,  and 
by  certain  rules  the  distance  in  degrees  may  be  changed  to  miles. 

Longitude.  —  Distance  east  or  west  is  called  longitude,  and  is 
reckoned  from  the  meridians,  one  meridian  being  chosen  for  a  start- 
ing-point. Different  nations  have  chosen  different  first  meridians  ;  but 
the  one  which  for  a  long  time  has  been  most  commonly  used  is  that 
which  passes  through  Greenwich,  near  London,  because  of  the  ob- 
servatory there.  Upon  our  American  maps  longitude  is  usually 
reckoned  both  from  Greenwich  and  Wasliington. 

Day  and  Night.  —  If  the  axis  of  the  earth  were  perpendicular  to 

its  path  lound  the  sun,  the 
dividing  circle  between  the 
lighted  half  and  darkened 
half  of  its  surface  would 
pass  through  the  poles,  cor- 
responding with  a  meridian, 
thus:  Fig,  3.  Each  place 
would  bo  just  as  long  in  the  light  as  in  the  shadow,  and  therefore 
the  days  and  nights  would  always  be  equal,  —  twelve  hours  each. 

But  in  reality  the  axis  is  in- 
clined to  the  orbit,  thus  :  Fig.  4. 
In  the  position  here  repre- 
sented more  than  half  the  north- 
ern hemisphere  is  Ijrought  with- 
in the  light,  and,  consequently, 
while  the  earth  makes  one  revo- 
lution on  its  axis,  any  place  north  of  the  equator,  as  P,  is  longer  in 
the  light,  A  B,  than  in  the  dark,  B  G.  The  farther  north  the  place 
is,  the  greater  will  be  the  difference  of  length  between  the  day  and 
night,  until  for  a  space  within  the  circle  x  y,  around  the  north  pole, 
there  will  be  no  night  while  the  earth  makes  an  entire  revolution. 
Meanwhile,  since  only  half  the  sphere  can  receive  the  sun's  rays  at 
once,  all  the  light  that  is  gained  in  the  northern  hemisphere  must 
be  lost  in  the  southern.  At  any  place  south  of  the  equator,  there- 
fore, the  night  will  be  longer  than  the  day,  and  to  the  south  polar 
region  the  daily  revolution  will  bring  no  day. 

This  would  be  the  condition  of  the  world  all  the  year,  long  days  and 
short  nights  in  one  hemisphere,  and  long  nights  and  short  days  in  the 
other,  if  the  eartli  remained  stationary.  But  at  the  end  of  six  months 
the  earth  will  Iiave  moved  half  through  its  path  round  the  sun,  and  as 
its  axis  keeps  the  same  direction,  the  north  pole  always  pointing  to 

the  north,  the  greater  part  of 
the  southern  hemisphere  will 
be  now  brought  within  the 
sun's  rays,  causing  long  days 
and  short  nights  south  of  the 
equator,  while  the  north  polar 
region  will  have  no  day,  thus : 


Fig.  6. 


Questions.' —  What  distance  east  or  west  gives  a  vaiiation  of  one  hour  of  time  ? 
Wliat  is  longitude  ?  From  what  point  is  longitude  generally  reckoned  ?  How  would 
the  world  be  lighted  if  its  axis  were  perpeudicular  to  its  orbit  ?  What  is  the  ])ositioii 
of  the  axis  ?  Explain  Fig.  4.  Explain  Fig.  5.  What  parts  of  the  earth's  surface 
have  at  one  season  no  day  and  at  another  no  night  ? 


Fig.  5.  But  the  change  was  very  gradual  during  these  six  months, 
each  day  in  the  northern  hemisphere  losing  a  little,-  and  each  night  gain- 
ing what  the  day  lost  of  the  twenty-four  hours,  while  just  the  reverse 
took  place  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  There  must,  therefore,  have 
been  a  time  when  both  nights  and  days  were  equal,  or  twelve  hours 
long  in  both  hemispheres.  These  equal  days  and  nights  occur  twice 
in  the  course  of  the  year,  once  half  way  between  our  longest  days  of 
summer  and  shortest  days  of  winter,  or  in  autumn;  and  again  between 
the  shortest  days  of  winter  and  longest  days  of  summer,  or  in  spring. 

HEAT. 

The  manner  in  which  the  earth  is  heated  by  the  sun  also  depends 
on  its  form,  motions,  and  the  position  of  its  axis. 

1.    The  sun's  rays  strike  most  directly  upon  the  central  spot  of  the 

side  that  is  turned  toward 
it.  Around  this  they  fall 
slantingly  upon  the  curv- 
ing surface ;  fewer  rays  are 
absorbed  within  a  given 
space,  and  consequently 
there  is  less  heat. 

2.  If  the  earth  were  stationary,  one  circular  space 
of  its  surface  would  always  bo  hottest,  but  the  motion 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis  brings  different  portions  of  its 
surface  successively  under  the  perpendicular  rays,  so 
as  to  form  a  continuous  hot  belt  around  it. 

3.  The  position  of  the  earth   in  regard  to  the  sun 
^■^            is  such  that  this  hot  belt  extends  on  each  side  of  the 

equator,  the  surface  north  and  south  of  it  being  colder  and  colder 
toward  the  poles.  The  change,  however,  from  hot  to  temperate  and 
from  temperate  to  cold  is  verj'  gradual. 

4.  The  motion  of  the  earth  round  the  sun  with  its  axis  always  pointing 
in  the  same  direction,  beside  causing  a  variation  in  the  length  of  days, 
also  causes  a  variation  of  temperature  in  all  parts  of  the  surface,  mov- 
ing the  circle  of  greatest  heat  alternately  northward  and  southward. 

Seasons.  —  When  the  days  and  nights  are  equal  in  both  hemi- 

A 
f'y/'  \,       /~~\barch 


SEpr.\    -,  ^* 

B 

Kg.  8. 


Questions.  —  When  are  days  and  nights  etiual  in  both  hemispheres  ?  Upon  what 
does  the  heating  of  the  earth  depend  ?  How  do  the  sun's  rays  fall  upon  the  earth  ? 
How  does  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  all'ect  the  heating  of  its  surface  ?  What 
I)art  of  the  earth  is  most  heated,  and  why  ?  What  causes  a  variation  of  temperature 
on  the  earth's  surface  ? 


HEAT.— THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


spheres  the  temperature  is  also  about  equal,  the  sun  being  directly 
over  head  at  the  equator,  and  the  heat  diminishing  equally  toward 
the  north  and  south  poles.  At  these  times  it  is  spring  in  one  hemi- 
sphere and  autumn  in  the  other.  Let  Fig.  8  represent  spring  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  when  the  earth  is  at  A.  Then  as  the  earth 
moves  onward  round  the  sun,  and  more  and  more  of  the  northern 
hemisphere  is  brought  into  the  sunlight,  the  circle  of  greatest  heat, 
or  of  perpendicular  rays,  moves  farther  north  of  the  equator  until  a 
quarter  of  the  yearly  revolution  brings  midsummer  heat  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  thus  :  Fig.  9.    Then  the  sun  is  directly  over  head  23  i 


'  JUNE^ 


degrees  north  of  the  equator,  which  is  the  farthest  northern  limit  of 
perpendicular  rays.  A  circle  drawn  round  the  globe  at  this  distance 
from  the  equator  marks  the  northern  limit  of  the  hot  belt ;  and  an- 
other circle  23^  degrees  from  the  pole  marks  the  limit  of  continuous 
polar  day.  When  it  is  midsummer  in  the  northern  hemisphere  it  is 
midwinter  south  of  the  equator,  since  the  heat  has  diminished  toward 
the  south  pole  in  the  same  proportion  that  it  has  increased  toward 
the  north  pole. 

During  the  next  quarter-revolution  the  heat  begins  to  increase 
southward.  When  it  is  completed  the  vertical  rays  are  again  over 
the  equator,  and  it  is  spring  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  (See  B, 
Fig.  8.)  When  another  quarter-revolution  is  completed  the  condi- 
tions of  summer  and  winter  are  reversed  in  the  two  hemispheres, 
thus :  Fig.  10.     The  sun  is  directly  overhead  23|  degrees  south  of 


Fig.  10. 

the  equator,  which  is  the  southern  limit  of  perpendicular  rays ;  and 
the  limit  of  long  polar  days  is  -23^  degrees  from  the  south  pole. 

Zones. — -The  circle  that  marks  the  limit  of  vertical  rays  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  is  called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  their  south- 
em  limit  is  marked  by  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

Questions.  —  When  is  the  temperature  equal  in  both  hemispheres  ?  What  change 
takes  place  in  a  quarter-revolution  ?  Explain  Fig.  9.  Explain  Fig.  10.  How  far 
northward  and  southward  do  the  vertical  rays  reach  ?  What  is  the  Tropic  of  Can- 
cer ?     Of  Capricorn  ? 


The  circles  that  mark  the  limits  of  continuous  polar  day  or  night 
are  called  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  cir- 
cles. 

These  circles  divide  the  earth's  sur- 
face into  five  belts,  called  zonea,  from 
the  Greek  word  for  belt  or  girdle. 
The  belt  between  the  tropics  of  Cancer 
and  Capricorn  is  the  hot  or  Torrid  zone. 
The  belts  between  the  tropics  and  po- 
lar circles  are  called  the  North  and 
South  Temperate  zones.  The  Frigid  or 
frozen  zones  lie  between  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  circles  and  the  poles.  Fig.  ii. 

THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

[Refer  to  Map  on  page  23.] 

Air.  —  The  colorless,  invisible  air  or  atmosphere  in  which  we  live 
is  composed  chiefly  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  gases  with  some  vapor. 
Beyond  a  certain  height  it  becomes  too  thin  and  light  for  our  use, 
and  persons  going  up  very  high  mountains,  or  in  balloons,  find  it 
scarcely  possible  to  breathe.  Oxygen  is  the  great  supporter  of  life 
and  of  combustion,  and  when  the  supply  is  insufficient,  as  in  close, 
crowded  rooms,  narrow  streets,  mines  or  cellars,  people  cannot 
'breathe  easily,  and  lights  burn  dimly. 

Winds.  —  Air  is  expanded  or  rarefied  by  heat ;  hence  healed  air, 
being  lighter  than  colder  air,  naturally  rises  above  it ;  and  the  un- 
equal heating  of  the  atmosphere  keeps  it  more  or  less  in  motion,  — 
currents  of  warmer  air  constantly  rising,  and  currents  of  colder  air 
rushing  in  beneath.     This  motion  of  the  air  is  called  wind. 

Permanent  Winds.  —  Some  winds  are  constant,  blowing  steadily 
from  the  same  direction  day  after  day.  Thus  in  the  torrid  zone  the 
heated  air  constantly  rises,  and  currents  of  air  from  cooler  regions 
north  and  south  flow  in  to  supply  its  place.  But  the  atmosphere 
revolves  with  the  earth  upon  its  axis,  and,  since  the  polar  regions 
move  through  a  smaller  circle  in  the  daily  revolution  than  the  equa- 
torial, the  polar  currents  have  less  velocity  than  the  parts  of  the 

N.POLE 


Fig.  12. 


S.POLE 


Questions.  —  What  are  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles  ?  What  is  the  meaning 
of  zone?  What  is  the  Torrid  zone?  What  are  the  Temperate  zones?  Frigid  zones? 
Of  what  is  the  atmosphere  composed  ?  What  is  said  of  oxygen  ?  How  does  heat 
affect  the  air  ?  What  is  the  cause  of  wind  ?  What  are  permanent  winds  ?  Where 
is  heated  air  constantly  rising  ?    Where  do  cold  currents  come  from  to  take  its  place  ? 


OUR  WORLD. 


earth  toward  which  they  are  moving,  and  therefore  do  not  blow 
directly  north  and  south,  but  fall  westward,  becoming  in  the  temper- 
ate zones  northeast  and  southeast  winds.  Within  the  tropics  they 
form  permanent  winds  blowing  constantly  from  east  to  west. 

Sailors  take  advantage  of  these  permanent  winds  of  the  torrid 
zone,  and  they  are  everywhere  known  by  the  name  of  tirade  winds. 

Midway  between  these,  or  where  the  heated  air  is  constantly  I'ising, 
neither  current  is  perceptible,  so  that  a  little  north  of  the  equator 
there  is  a  region  of  perpetual  calm,  called  the  zone  of  calms. 

The  ascending  air  divides  into  two  upper  currents  which  blow 
toward  the  poles.  In  the  temperate  zones,  where  they  gradually 
cool,  they  become  surface  winds  and  are  called  return  trades.  Hav- 
ing a  greater  velocity  of  rotation  than  the  temperate  and  polar  regions 
they  blow  from  the  southwest  and  northwest. 

Periodical  winds  are  caused  by  the  alternate  heating  of  the  tropi- 
cal lands  in  the  two  hemispheres,  and  blow  in  opposite  directions 
during  winter  and  summer.  These  winds  prevail  mostly  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  because  of  the  alternately  heated  lands  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
and  are  called  monsoons,  or  season  winds.  During  the  northern  win- 
ter the  northeast  monsoon  blows  across  this  ocean  toward  Africa,  and 
during  the  southern  winter  the  southwest  monsoon  blows  toward  India. 

Variable  Winds  blow  at  all  times  and  seasons,  prevailing  in  the 
temperate  zones  where  the  air  is  not  so  much  heated,  and  where  the 
currents  are  easily  turned  by  various  causes. 

Sea-Breezes  prevail  along  shores  during  the  day,  because,  as  the 
land  becomes  more  heated  than  the  water  by  the  sun,  the  warm  air 
above  it  rises  and  a  cool  current  blows  in  from  the  sea.  But  the  land 
also  loses  its  heat  more  quickly  than  the  water,  and  therefore  during 
the  night  a  land-breeze  blows  seaward.  These  breezes  are  often  of 
great  importance  to  the  comfort  of  the  inhabitants  of  hot  climates. 

Hurricanes.  —  The  greater  the  diil'erence  of  temperature  between 
two  currents  of  air  the  more  rapid  will  be  their  motion.  Winds 
therefore  vary  from  the  gentlest  breeze  to  the  most  violent  storm. 
In  the  torrid  zone  the  force  of  the  wind  is  often  terrific,  and  it  some- 
times comes  with  a  whirling  motion,  wrenching  up  treesj^engulfing 
vessels,  and  causing  great  destruction  in  its  path.  Such  wind 
storms  are  called  hurricanes  in  the  West  Indies,  and  typhoons  in  the 
China  Seas.  A  sudden  whirl  between  two  currents,  lasting  a  very 
short  time,  is  called  a  whirlwind,  or  tornado. 

Moisture  is  constantly  evaporated  or  drawn  upward  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean,  rivers,  and  lakijg  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  held 
in  the  atmosphere,  either  invisible  or  in  the  form  of  light  clouds, 
which  are  usually  to  be  seen  even  in  a  bright  day. 

Rain.  —  When  there  is  more  moisture  than  the  air  can  hold  it  falls 
in  the  form  of  rain,  The  warmer  and  lighter  the  air  the  more  it  ex- 
pands and  the  more  moisture  it  can  contain,  and  a  little  change  of 
temperature  causes  what  we  call  "clearing  oti'"  or  "clouding  up." 
This  expansion  and  condensation  of  the  air  is  constantly  going  on, 
according  to  the  temperature  and  the  direction  of  the  currents  of  air, 
—  rain  failing  more  at  some  places  than  at  others,  and  more  at  some 
seasons  than  others. 

Snovir.  —  Wh.pn  the  atmosphere  is  quite  cold  the  moisture  freezes 
and  falls  in  the-^form  of  snow  instead  of  rain.  In  the  process  of  freez- 
ing the  particles  of  moisture  take  a  variety  of  regular  and  beautiful 

forms  call^  crystals,  —  tiny  stars,  feathery  wheels,  and  six-sided 

^ 

Questions.  —  Why  do  they  fall  to  the  westward?  What  becomes  of  them  in  the 
tropics  ?  What  are  they  called  ?  What  is  the  zone  of  calms  ?  What  are  the  return 
trades  ?  What  is  said  of  periodical  winds  ?  Of  monsoons  ?  Variable  winds  ?  How 
are  sea-breezes  caused  ?  Land  breezes  ?  What  are  hurricanes  ?  Where  called  ty- 
phoons ?  What  is  a  tornado  ?  Where  does  the  moisture  in  the  air  come  from  1  What 
causes  rain  ?     What  causes  snow,  and  in  what  form  does  it  fall  ? 


figures  which  may  be  seen  plainly  when  the  snow  is  light  and  dry. 
When  it  is  damp,  the  crystals  stick  together  in  large  tiakes  and  can- 
not be  distinguished  one  from  another. 


Snow-flakes. 

Hail.  —  Sometimes  when  the  falling  drops  of  moisture  pass  alter- 
nately through  warm  and  cool  air  they  freeze  and  partly  melt  and 
freeze  again,  reaching  the  ground  as  hail. 

"Devr.  —  People  often  speak  of  dew  falling  at  night ;  in  fact,  how- 
ever, dew  does  not  fall,  but  is  formed  at  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
where  the  moisture  is  collected  in  large  drops  by  the  rapid  cooling 
of  the  earth  and  the  air  near  its  surface  about  sunset. 

Fog.  —  It  frequently  happens  that  the  atmosphere  around  us  is 
full  of  moisture,  especially  on  seashores  or  river  banks,  and  a  sud- 
den chill  condenses  it  into  a  visible  mist,  or  fog.  The  cooling  after 
dark  is  often  sufficient  to  cause  a  fog  which  disappears  in  the  morn- 
ing, when  the  air  is  again  expanded  by  the  warmth  of  the  rising  sun. 

CLIMATE. 

All  these  variations  of  temperature  and  moisture  come  underthe  name 
oi  climate,  and  determine  in  a  great  measure  the  vegetation  and  animal 
life  of  a  country,  as  well  as  the  life  and  occupation  of  its  inhabitants. 

Two  fixed  laws  or  scales  of  temperature  hold  good  all  over  the 
world.  1.  The  greatest  heat  near  the  equator,  and  a  gradual  lessen- 
ing toward  each  pole.  2.  A  gradual  lessening  of  heat  as  we  rise 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  so  that  in  ascending  high  mountains,  even' 
in  the  torrid  zone,  we  should  pass  through  the  same  changes  of  tem- 
perature and  of  vegetation  as  in  going  through  the  torrid,  temperate, 
and  frigid  zones,  and  should  find  their  summits  covered  with  snow 
all  the  year  round. 

Latitude.  —  The  climate  of  a  country  therefore  depends  greatly 
upon  its  distance  north  or  south  of  the  equator,  or  its  latitude.  Cir- 
cles parallel  with  the  equator  are  called  parallels  of  latitude ;  and  if 
one  of  these  circles  is  1,000  miles  north  of 
the  equator,  all  places  on  it  are  in  the  same 
latitude  and,  if  there  were  no  modifying 
causes,  would  have  very  much  the  same 
climate.  Geographical  distances  are  meas- 
ured by  degrees;  but,  as  the  degrees  of 
a  great  circle  of  the  earth  are  equal  to 
69J  miles,  distance  north  or  south  of  the 
equator  can  be  easily  changed  to  miles. 

Torrid  Zone.  —  The  torrid  zone  is  between  the  Tropic  of  Cancer 
and  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  extends  23^  degrees  north  and  south 

Questions.  — What  is  hail  ?  Where  and  how  is  dew  formed  ?  Fog  ?  What  is 
climate  ?  What  are  the  two  general  laws  for  the  variation  of  temperature  ?  What  is 
latitude  ?  Why  is  it  important  to  know  the  latitude  of  a  country  ?  How  is  latitude 
measured  ?    Where  is  the  tonid  zone  t 


1 


30  N0R1i 


CLIMATE.  — THE  CRUST  OF  THE  EARTH. 


of  tlie  equator,  including  the  greater  part  of  Africa  and  South 
America,  half  of  Australia,  and  a  little  of  North  America  and  Asia. 
Here  the  weather  is  warm  and  the  foliage  green  all  the  year,  and  the 
only  change  of  seasons  is  from  rainy  to  dry.  Eain  usually  falls  in 
torrents  a  part  of  each  day  for  several  months  and  then  ceases 
entirely.  During  the  drj^  season,  dews  and  the  invisible  moisture  in 
tlie  air  preserve  the  vegetation,  yet  there  is  often  much  suffering 
from  the  want  of  water,  and  large  tracts  become  parched  like  a  des- 
ert ;  but,  when  the  rains  return,  trees  and  grass  freshen  up  into 
wonderful  luxuriance  and  beauty.  Rich  and  abundant  vegetable  and 
animal  life  characterize  this  zone,  magnificent  forests,  rank  grasses 
several  feet  high,  large,  fiei-ce  animals,  and  myriads  of  insects.  The 
inhabitants  live  much  in  the  open  air  and  are  not  fond  of  work. 

Temperate  Zones.  —  The  two  temperate  zones  extend  from  the 
tropics  to  within  23J  degrees  of  the  poles.  The  north  temperate 
zone,  including  the  greater  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Amer- 
ica, contains  much  more  land  than  the  south  temperate.  These 
zones  have  four  seasons.  1.  Winter,  when  the  trees  lose  their  foli- 
age and  cease  to  grow,  when  the  nights  arc  long  and  the  cold  often 
intense.  2.  Spring,  when  the  buds  open  into  tender  green,  flowers 
begin  to  bloom,  and  the  streams  overflow.  3.  Summer,  when  the 
days  are  long  and  warm,  the  foliage  is  thick,  and  fruits  are  ripening. 
4.  Autumn,  when  the  leaves  fall,  the  frost  comes,  and  the  harvests 
are  gathered.  In  this  zone  vegetation  is  less  luxuriant  than  in  the 
torrid  zone,  and  the  inhabitants  are  obliged  to  work  harder,  and  to 
use  forethought  in  preparing  for  the  winter.  This  climate,  therefore, 
is  the  best  for  the  development  of  man,  where  he  is  not  enfeebled  by 
too  much  heat,  nor  overcome  by  cold  and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
food. 


Frigid  Zones.  —  In  these  zones  life  is  cold,  hard,  and  dreary  to 
all  who  have  lived  in  a  warmer  climate.  The  short  summer  brings 
but  scanty  vegetation,  and  even  this  ceases  in  the  extreme  north, 
where  the  snows  and  ice  never  wholly  melt.  The  few  inhabitants 
of  this  icy  climate  wrap  themselves  in  clumsy  garments  of  fur, 
devour  the  fat  of  whales  and  seals  in  order  to  keep  warm,  and 
have  no  other  thought  than  how  to  obtain  the  barest  necessaries 
of  life. 

Isotherms.  —  If  the  general  law  of  temperature  were  uninter- 
rupted, places  situated  on  the  same  parallel  all  round  the  world 
would  have  the  same  temperature.  But  many  causes,  such  as  the  po- 
sition of  land  and  water,  difference  of  elevation,  or  of  winds  and  cur- 
rents, and  the  direction  of  mountain  chains,  modify  or  vary  the  cli- 
mate and  appearance  of  different  parts  of  the  world.  Here  a  great 
plain  in  the  interior  of  a  continent,  shut  off  from  the  ocean  or  other 
waters,  becomes  a  hot,  dry  desert.  There  large  rivers  flow  through 
low  lands  in  the  same  zone,  the  hot  moisture  rises  and  dense  forests 
border  their  banks.  A  current  of  wind  striking  against  a  mountain 
chain  is  forced  upward  where  the  air  is  cooler,  and  its  moisture  con- 
denses into  rain,  causing  on  that  side  of  the  chain  a  pleasant  climate 
and  rich  vegetation,  while  on  the  other  side  may  be  bare  slopes  and 
a  dry  heat.  These  influences  cause  a  variety  of  climates,  and  iso- 
thermal or  equal-heat  lines  do  not  correspond  with  the  parallels  of 
latitude.  Following  the  isothermal  lines  we  find  the  west  coast  of 
Europe  warmer  than  the  American  shores  in  the  same  latitude  di- 
rectly opposite  ;  and  when  we  eat  figs  and  olives  from  Italy  and 
Spain,  or  hear  of  invalids  going  from  New  England  to  France  for  a 
milder  climate,  we  forget  that  those  countries  are  no  farther  south 
than  our  own.     [Refer  to  Map  on  page  169.] 


THE    CRUST    OF   THE    EARTH 


Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  outside  influences  that  affect  the 
earth,  and  we  now  come  to  the  actual  surface  or  crust  of  the  earth 
itself.  The  discovery  and  development  of  natural  laws  have  been 
the  work  of  ages,  for  such  knowledge  is  obtained  gradually.  First, 
by  the  general  observations  of  men  in  the  pursuit  of  their  various 
occupations.  Secondly,  by  the  patient  study  and  investigation  of  a 
few,  persons  in  each  age  and  nation.  Thus  some  knowledge  of  the 
crust  of  the  earth  has  been  obtained. 

It  was  observed  along  cliffs  or  on  mountain  sides  that  layers,  or 

y    strata,  of  different  kinds  of  rock  rested   one 

above  another  with  great  regularity,  and  were 

usually   slanting,  thus  :    Fig.  14.     Workers  in 

stone  found  that  some  rocks  were  hard,  like 

granite ;  others  soft  and  easjly  split,  like  slate. 

In  mining  and  quarrying,  impressions  of  shells, 

bones,  leaves  of  plants,  and  sometimes  of  entire 

animals  were  found  in  solid   rock, — many  of 

them  unlike  any  now  existing ;  and  buried  deep 

in  the  frozen  earth  of  the  cold  northern  region  were  found  remains 

of  elephants,  which  were  probably  adapted  to  a  cool  climate. 


Fig.  u. 


Questions.  —  Describe  the  climate  of  the  torrid  zone.  What  portions  of  the  earth 
are  included  witliin  this  zone?  Wliere  arc  the  temperate  zones  ?  Which  has  the  more 
land  ?  Describe  their  climate.  Describe  the  climate  of  the  frigid  zones.  What 
causes  modify  or  interrupt  the  general  law  of  climate  ?  What  are  isothermal  lines  ? 
Do  isothermal  lines  correspond  to  the  parallels  of  latitude  1  Which  shore  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  the  warmer  ?  Which  is  farther  north,  Paris  or  Boston  ?  Which 
has  the  colder  climate  ?  How  has  a  knowledge  of  our  world  been  obtained  ?  What 
observations  were  made  in  regard  to  the  earth's  crust  ? 


Intelligent  men  began  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  these  singular 
appearances.  Examining  r/iore  closely  and  in  different  localities, 
they  found  far  inland  remains  or  fossils  of  sea-shells  and  corals 
which  must  have  grown  in  salt  water.  They  also  learned  that  cer- 
tain fossils  were  always  found  in  the  same  kind  of  rocks,  and  that  in 
some  rocks  no  fossils  were  seen.  It  was  discovered  that  when  strata 
of  rock  end  suddenly-  on  the 
side  of  a  hill,  a  continuation 
of  the  same  strata,  in  the  same 
order  and  containing  similar 
fossils,  is  often  found  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  valley 
many  miles  distant.  (Fig. 
15.)  Moreover  the  appearance  of  certain  rocks  was  such  as  is  always 
produced  by  fusion  or  intense  heat. 

By  comparing  their  discoveries  and  ideas  these  various  students 
have  finally  agreed  on  many  points.  There  is  still  much  to  learn, 
but  thus  far  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  earth  was  once  a  globe 
of  melted  matter  turning  on  its  axis,  and  that  the  "surface  gradually 
hardened  into  a  solid  crust,  while  the  surrounding  vapors  condensed 
into  a  flood  of  waters.  The  surface  in  cooling  contracted  into  a 
rough,  uneven  crust,  particles  of  which  were  continually-worn  off  by 
the  rolling  waters  and  deposited  in  layers  of  sand  and  mud.  The 
first  living  creatures  which  appeared  were  shell-fish  and  corals,  or 
such  other  animals  as  could  endure  the  heated  waters  of  that  early 

Questions. ^ What  were  the  results  of  more  careful  examinations?  Describe  thi' 
supposed  formation  of  the  earth. 


OUR  WORLD. 


period.  Successive  periods  in  the  progress  of  the  earth's  formation 
followed,  — new  strata  were  deposited  by  the  waters,  and  new  forms 
of  animal  life  appeared.  And  at  intervals  came  tremendous  convul- 
sions, rending  and  upheaving  the  gradually  thickening  crust,  lifting 
portions  above  the  water,  and  throwing  out  streams  of  melted  rock 
from  within,  to  fill  the  fissures  or  harden  upon  the  outside.  At  length 
the  crust  was  solid  and  deep  enough  to  resist  the  force  of  the  inter- 
nal heat,  the  atmosphere  had  cooled  and  cleared,  large  bodies  of  dry 
land  were  conveniently  distributed  over  the  globe,  and  the  waters 
had  retired  into  the  depressions,  forming  a  highway  of  easy  commu- 
nication from  land  to  land.  The  world  was  ready  for  man,  and  earth, 
air,  and  water  abounded  with  creatures  for  his  use. 

THE   OCEAN. 

[Refer  to  Map  on  page  23,  ] 

Referring  again  to  our  imitation  globe,  we  find  that  the  water  still 
covers  about  three  fourths  of  the  earth's  surface  in  one  connected 
body,  though  the  large  masses  of  dry  land  lie  in  such  a  way  as  to 
partially  divide  it  into  several  lesser  oceans  known  by  different 
names  The  largest  are  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic,  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  globe,  which  really  extend  from  pole  to  pole,  though  these 
names  are  only  applied  between  the  north  and  south  polar  circles. 
The  Arctic  Ocean  lies  around  the  north  pole,  partially  enclosed  by 
the  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  opening  broadly  into 
the  Atlantic,  but  only  connected  with  the  Pacific  by  the  narrow 
Bohring  Strait.  The  Antarctic  Ocean,  around  the  south  pole,  is  un- 
confined  by  land,  and  only  separated  by  name  from  the  other  oceans. 
The  Indian  Ocean  is  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  partially  enclosed 
by  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia. 

Water. -^  In  the  continual  process  of  evaporation  from  the  broad 
surface  of  the  ocean,  only  pure,  tasteless  vapor  is  drawn  up  into  the 
atmosphere.  The  various  salts  and  mineral  substances  washed  from 
the  earth  remain  dissolved  in  the  sea,  making  the  water  very  salt  and 
bitter,  and  unfit  to  drink. 

Waves.  —  Waves  are  generally  raised  by  the  wind,  and  vary 
from  gentle  ripples  to  stormy  billows.  Often  in  the  fairest  weather 
the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  broken  by  waves  that  become  higher  as 
the  winds  are  stronger,  and  in  storms  rise,  foam,  and  break  with  tre- 
mendous power,  especially  along  the  shores  On  some  shores,  owing 
to  the  direction  and  force  of  regular  winds  and  currents,  and  to  the 
slope  of  the  land,  these  ocean  waves  always  roll  high,  as  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  which  is  a  difficult  point  for  vessels  to  pass  even  in 
fine  weather. 

To  a  person  standing  on  a  beach  one  distant  wave  appears  to  roll 
onward  until  it  strikes  the  shore,  but  the  wave  motion  is  in  reality 
conveyed  from  one  portion  of  the  water  to  another,  each  particle  re- 
maining almost  stationary  in  its  own  place.  This  will  be  perceived 
by  throwing  a  stick  into  the  water  at  some  distance  from  the  land  ; 
there  it  will  remain,  lifted  again  and  again  by  the  passing  waves, 
instead  of  rolling  with  the  first  to  land. 

Currents.  — •  The  same  differences  of  temperature  that  cause  winds, 
or  currents  in  the  atmosphere,  also  cause  currents  in  the  ocean, 
though  the  ocean  currents  are  more  complicated  than  the  winds,  being 
modified  by  them,  and  often  interrupted  or  turned  aside  by  the  direc- 
tion of  the  shore  lines.  Yet  some  of  them  have  been  fully  traced  out 
and  are  well  known  to  sailors.  Currents  of  warm  water  from  the 
torrid  zone,  moving  rapidly  toward  the  colder  regions,  often  keep 
their  warmer  temperature  in  the  midst  of  cold  waters,  and  have  a  great 

Questions.  —  How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  is  covered  by  water  ?  How  is  this 
body  of  water  partial!}'  divided  ?  What  is  said  of  the  different  oceans  ?  What  of  the 
water  of  the  sea  ?    What  of  waves  ?    Describe  wave  motion.     What  is  said  of  currents  ? 


influence  on  the  climate  of  the  shores  they  meet.  The  Gulf  Stream 
is  a  warm  current  which  flows  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  carries 
its  waters  from  that  southern  latitude  northeastward  and  across  the 
ocean  to  the  shores  of  Europe,  making  their  climate  milder  than  that 
of  the  opposite  shores  in  the  same  latitude.  Sometimes  a  current  is 
so  bent  as  to  become  circular  in  its  course,  so  that  a  bottle  or  plank 
has  been  known  to  come  round  again  to  the  same  spot  months  after 
it  was  dropped  in  the  water.  There  is  such  a  great  circular  current 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  that  is  constantly  sucking  in  the  floating  sea- 
weed toward  its  centre,  forming  an  immense  mass  of  it  called  the 
Sargasso  (or  seaweed)  Sea. 

The  regular  ocean  currents  are  useful  in  several  ways,  —  they  aid 
sailors  when  flowing  in  the  direction  of  their  voyage,  they  convey 
seeds  of  plants  to  barren  islands,  and  carry  quantities  of  floating  logs 
and  planks  to  shores  where  no  timber  grows.  On  some  of  the  islands 
in  the  North  Atlantic  the  people  depend  entirely  on  this  driftwood  for 
building  and  firewood. 

Tides.  —  There  is  another  motion  of  the  ocean  not  so  easy  to  un- 
derstand. According  to  a  general  law  of  attraction  the  moon  draws 
the  whole  mass  of  the  earth  toward  itself.  This  attraction  acts  suc- 
cessively on  difl'erent  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  as  they  are  turned 
toward  the  moon  in  the  course  of  the  daily  revolution,  and,  as  the 
water  yields  more  readily  to  the  attraction  than  the  land,  there  is  a 
gradual  swell  in  different  parts  of  the  ocean,  at  regular  intervals, 

called  a  tide.  The  solid 
earth  is  more  attracted 
than  the  water  farthest 

(m)  from    the    moon ;  hence 

this  water  is  left  be- 
hind, or  a  tide  is  formed 
there.  Thus  two  high 
tides  occur  together  on 
sun,  although  so  distant,   has 


LOW    TIDE 


HIGH  I 
TIDE  ■ 


opposite   sides 
some  effect  on 


The 


Fig.  16. 

of  the   earth, 
the  tides. 

Islands.  —  Beside  the  large  bodies  of  dry  land  many  lesser  peaks 
or  ridges  of  the  solid  crust  have  risen  here  and  there  above  the  water, 
dotting  the  ocean  with  islands  of  every  size  and  form.  Islands  are 
classed  as  oceanic  and  continental. 

Continental  Islands  lie  along  the  shores  of  the  mainland,  usually 
enclosing  seas,  and  are  often  continuations  of  mountain  chains  on 
the  continents.  Some  of  the  larger  islands  are  of  such  size  as  to  con- 
stitute important  empires  or  countries,  as  Great  Britain  and  Japan. 
Others  are  merely  bare  rocks  rising  from  the  water. 

Oceanic  Islands  are  solitary  peaks  or  clusters  rising  in  mid-ocean 
far  away  from  other  dry  land.  The  Sandwich  Islands  and  the  Azores 
are  examples  of  this  class. 

Coral  Islands.  Many  islands  of  the  torrid  zone,  though  resting 
upon  submarine  mountains,  are  not  a  part  of  the  earth's  crust,  but  are 
formed  by  tiny  living  creatures  which  inhabit  the  seas.  These  are 
the  coral  polyps,  —  small,  jelly-like  creatures  that  multiply  in  masses, 
forming,  as  they  grow,  a  stony,  branching  skeleton.  As  myriads 
of  the  polyps  live  and  die,  the  coral  formation  grows  higher  and 
larger,  until  it  reaches  the  surface  of  the  water.  Here  the  waves  roll 
and  break  upon  it,  crushing  and  wearing  off  the  upper  portion  and 
forming  a  thin  soil,  which  is  increased  by  drift,  and  catches  floating 
seeds  from  the  winds  and  currents,  until  at  last  the  coral  mass  be- 
comes an  island.  Sometimes  these  coral  formations  are  mere  reefs 
along  a  coast,  dangerous  to  navigators.  The  islands,  or  atolls,  con- 
Questions.  —  What  is  the  Gulf  Stream  ?  The  Sargasso  Sea  ?  What  are  the  uses 
of  currents  i  How  are  tides  caused  ?  Why  is  the  ocean  dotted  with  islands  ?  What 
are  continental  islands  ?     Oceanic  islands  ?     How  are  coral  islands  formed  ? 


THE   OCEAN.  — THE   LAND. 


9 


sist  of  a  circular  reef  enclosing  a  lake,  or  lagoon,  and  open  at  one 
side.  These  lagoons  make  safe  harbors  for  ships,  always  smooth 
and  quiet,  however  loud  the  roar  of  the  waves  dashing  on  the  outer 


Coral  Island 

shore  of  the  island.  Coral  polyps  only  live  in  warm  climates,  conse- 
quently these  islands  are  mostly  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  many  of 
them  arc  very  beautiful  with  their  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation. 
Points  or  peninsulas  of  coral  formation  have  here  and  there  been 
added  to  the  mainland. 

Stirface  under  vrater.  —  Since  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth  forms 
one  continuous  surface  partly  covered  with  water,  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  is,  like  the  dry  land,  a  succession  of  hills,  valleys,  low  plains,  and 
plateaus,  the  water  being  in  many  places  quite  shallow,  and  in  others 
too  deep  to  be  sounded. 

THE  LAND. 

The  dry  land  rises  chiefly  in  two  great  masses,  or  continents,  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  globe  ;  but  each  of  these  large  continents  is  so 
nearly  divided  into  two  parts  that  four  grand  divisions  may  be  reck- 
oned, —  North  and  South  America  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and 
in  the  eastern,  Africa,  and_  Asia-Europe.  This  last  is  one  mass  of 
land,  not  naturally  divided,  yet  its  eastern  and  western  parts  are  so 
different  as  to  inhabitants  and  condition'  that  Europe  is  considered  a 
fifth  division.  The  smaller  continent  of  Australia  makes  a  sixth 
grand  division.  The  name  of  continent  is  sometimes  applied  to  each 
of  these  six  divisions,  though  the  word  means  a  continuous  body  of 
land  entirely  surrounded  by  water. 

Although  there  are  three  northern  and  three  southern  divisions, 
the  distribution  of  land  is  very  unequal  in  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres.  Both  Africa  and  South  America  taper  to  points  at  a 
distance  from  the  south  pole,  leaving  a  vast  open  ocean,  while  North 
America  and  Asia-Europe  broaden  toward  the  north,  until  they  almost 
touch,  nearly  enclosing  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Thus  the  great  bulk  of 
land,  including  almost  all  of  Asia  and  North  America  and  the  whole 
of  Europe,  lies  in  the  north  temperate  and  frigid  zones  ;  so  that  in 
speaking  of  the  earth  and  its  productions  the  term  north  has  come  to 
be  almost  synonymous  with  cold. 

Questions.  —  What  is  a  lagoon  ?  Where  are  coral  islands  found  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  ?  How  is  the  land  distributed  ?  How  many  continents  are 
there  ?  How  many  grand  divisions  ?  Which  two  are  not  naturally  divided  ?  Is 
there  more  land  in  the  northern  or  southern  hemisphere  ?  What  land  encloses  the 
Arctic  Ocean  1 


Mountains.  —  Mountain-systems  consist  usually  of  several  ridges, 
more  or  less  parallel,  united  here  and  there  by  cross  ridges,  and  send- 
ing out  lesser  spurs  on  each  side.  Some  mountains  are  covered  far 
up  with  luxuriant  forests,  while  others  are  bare  and  rocky.  Diflfer- 
ont  chains  have  characteristic  forms  of  outline  ;  some  swell  in  great, 
rounded  curves  one  above  another,  and  others  rise  in  sharp  peaks  and 
clifis.  The  lofty  summits  of  the  higher  mountains  arc  always  covered 
with  snow,  and  collect  perpetual  stores  of  moisture  to  feed  the  count- 
less streams  that  water  the  land  and  open  communication  with  the  sea. 

By  the  early  shrinkage  and  upheavals  of  the  earth's  crust,  moun- 
tains appeared  ;  and  by  its  fractures  the  lower  rocks  were  brought  to 
the  surface,  and  metallic  veins  were  formed.  As  the  crust  became 
thicker,  the  convulsions  were  more  violent,  and  the  upheavals  greater; 
so  that  the  highest  mountain-ranges  were  the  last  formed,  while  the 
oldest  ridges  are  comparatively  low. 

Volcanoes.  —  Some  of  the  openings  made  in  the  crust  were  not 
entirely  closed,  and  thus  volcanoes  were  formed,  through  which 
steam,  gas,  and  melted  matter  still  escape,  and  prevent  such  an  ac- 
cumulation within  as  might  again  rend  the  earth.  Yet,  even  with 
these  vents,  the  internal  force  is  powerful  enough  to  shake  the  earth 
from  time  to  time,  causing  what  we  call  earthquakes.  A  volcano  is 
usually  a  conical  mountain  with  a  crater,  or  hollow,  in  the  top,  of 
considerable  extent.     When  a  volcano  is  not  in  active  eruption,  vis- 


Crater. 

itors  may  descend  into  its  crater,  though  even  then  some  parts  may 
be  soft  and  heated,  and  jets  of  sulphurous  steam  or  smoke  may  rise 
from  it.  Sulphur  usually  abounds  either  in  great  yellow  flakes,  or 
mixed  with  the  mud  and  gas.  There  are  often  loud  groanings  and 
explosions  for  several  days  before  an  eruption  ;  —  then  the  flames 
shoot  up,  showers  of  ashes  and  red-hot  stones  are  thrown  to  a  great 
distance,  and  broad  streams  of  melted  rock,  or  lava,  pour  down  the 
mountain-side.  These  streams  are  several  feet  in  depth,  and  often 
flow  over  many  miles,  overwhelming  forests,  fields,  and  cities,  and 
causing  immense  loss  of  life  and  property. 

A  volcano  on  one  of  the  Pacific  islands  is  thus  described:  "The 
crater  was  two  miles  in  diameter  and  the  wall  rose  perpendicularly 
nine  or  ten  hundred  feet.     A  lake  within  was  surrounded  by  a  solid 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  mountain -systems  ?  Of  their  outlines  ?  Are  the 
highest  mountains  the  oldest  or  newest,  and  why  ?  What  are  volcanoes  ?  What  is 
a  crater?    What  is  lava  ?     Give  the  description  of  an  eruption. 


10 


OUR   WORLD. 


crust,  with  much  porphyry,  aud  sulphur  enough  to  load  many  ships  ; 
and  thousands  of  jets  of  inflammable  gas  issued  from  the  surface. 
In  1754  there  was  a  violent  eruption  which  lasted  eight  days,  with 
tremendous  explosions,  darkness,  and  clouds  of  ashes  that  fell  at  a 
distance  of  twenty  leagues.  Streams  of  bitumen  and  sulphur  ran 
over  the  district ;  the  alligators  and  sharks  were  destroyed  in  the 
rivers,  and  flung  upon  the  banks  ;  and  villages  were  overwhelmed 
with  ashes  and  lava."  Such  eruptions  have  occurred  at  intervals  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  and  a  few  volcanoes  have  become  famous 
for  their  repeated  eruptions,  or  the  terrible  destruction  they  have 
caused.  The  best  known  of  these  are  Mount  Vesuvius  and  Mount 
Etna  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  Mount  Hecla  in  Iceland,  and  the 
volcano  Kilauea,  on  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  chief  vol- 
canic region  of  the  world  extends  around  the  shores  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  There  are  many  extinct  volcanoes,  from  which  there  have 
been  no  eruptions  for  a  long  time,  and  which  are  no  longer  feared. 

Plains.  —  Between  mountain-chains  and  peaks  are  valleys,  ravines, 
and  plains,  various  in  size  and  form.  Valleys  are  sometimes  narrow 
and  deep,  and  sometimes  widen  out  with  gentle  slopes  over  a  broad 
extent  of  country,  affording  fine  tracts  for  cultivation.  The  upper 
valleys,  among*  the  higher  ridges,  often  form  extensive  levels,  far 
above  the  sea,  which  are  called  plateaus,  or  table-lands.  Plateaus 
being  high,  among  rugged  mountains,  are  not  remarkable  for  luxuri- 
ance of  vegetation,  and  are  often  bare  and  dreary  in  appearance. 

Extensive  lowlands,  without  mountains  and  with  a  comparatively 
level  surface,  are  generally  called  plains,  but  take  different  local 
names  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  large  grass-plains  of 
North  America,  in  the  basin  of  the  upper  Mississippi,  are  known  as 
prairies.  The  names  of  pampas  and  llanos  are  given  to  vast  plains 
in  South  America  covered  with  luxuriant  grass.  The  great  plains 
around  the  Caspian  Sea  are  called  steppes  ;  those  of  Siberia  are  called 
tundras.  Deserts  are  plains,  whether  high  or  low,  that  are  mostly 
destitute  of  trees  or  grass ;  such  as  the  vast  regions  of  sand  and 
rock  in  Africa  and  Asia. 

Rivers,  however  large,  have  small  beginnings,  or  sources.  Some- 
times the  rainwater  absorbed  by  the  earth  filters  through  the  liglit 
upper  soil,  until,  reaching  a  layer  of  clay,  it  creeps  on  and  finds 
an  opening  whence  it  issues  as  a  spring.  From  the  spring  runs  a 
brook  or  rivvdet,  which  flows  down  to  find  the  lowest  level  of  the 
valley.  Sometimes  water  collects  in  marshy  liollows  until  it  over- 
flows and  wears  a  pathway  to  the  sea.  Often  streams  rush  down  the 
narrow  ravines  in  mountain  regions,  and  unite  into  large  rivers  before 
finding  an  outlet.  Other  rivers  have  their  origin  in  vast  masses  of 
snow  gathered  among  the  high  mountains,  where  the  surface  only 
melts  during  the  summer  days.  When  this  melts,  the  water  pene- 
trates the  snow,  and,  freezing  there  during  the  night,  changes  it  into 
a  substance  between  snow  and  ice,  called  neue.  The  accumulated 
snow  of  succeeding  winters  presses  upon  this,  and  finally  it  becomes 
clear,  compact  ice.  Portions  of  this  ice  come  down  into  the  narrow 
valleys  leading  from  the  mountain-crests,  and  move  slowly  on  as 
frozen  rivers,  or  glaciers,  till  they  are  melted  at  their  base  by  the 
summer  heat  in  the  lower  valleys.  The  streams  which  flow  from 
different  glaciers  often  unite  into  one  large  river.  Glaciers  bring 
down  rocks  and  loose  earth,  broken  from  the  sides  of  the  valley, 
which  form  ridges  on  their  sides  and  at  their  base,  and  are  called 
moraines. 

Rivers,  once  formed,  are  constantly  supplied  by  rain  and  by  melted 


Questions.  —  Which  are  some  of  the  most  famous  volcanoes  ?  What  are  plains  ? 
Plateaus  ?  What  names  are  given  to  different  low  plains  ?  What  is  a  desert  ?  How 
are  livers  formed  ? 


snows  ;  and  a  rapid  melting  in  the  spring,  with  heavy  rains,  causes 
the  rivers  to  swell  and  overflow  their  banks.  In-  some  cases  these 
overflows,  or  freshets,  are  great  disasters,  washing  away  houses, 
fences,  and  bridges,  and  ruining  crops  ;  but  in  others  they  are  essen- 
tial to  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  serving  to  fertilize  the  land 
in  the  absence  of  rain. 

The  direction  and  length  of  rivers  depend  on  the  slope  of  the  land. 
Streams  on  the  narrow  west  slope  of  the  Andes  have  only  a  short 
course  before  reaching  the  sea;  while  the  Amazon,  rising  on  the  other 
side  of  the  mountain  range,  flows  entirely  across- the  continent.  A 
very  slight  elevation  of  land  in  the  interior  of  a  continent  causes  its 
rivers  to  flow  in  opposite  directions  ;  and,  whether  high  or  low,  such 
an  elevation  is  called  a  water-shed.  The  more  sudden  the  slope  the 
more  rapid  the  current  of  the  rivers. 

The  bed  of  a  river  is  the  channel  or  passage  worn  by  the  waters  in 
the  soil  or  rocks. 

Large  rivers  flowing  through  low  tracts  in  the  latter  part  of  their 
course  usually  deposit  mud  and  sand  at  their  mouths,  through  which 
the  water  makes  its  way  to  the  sea  by  several  outlets.  Such  alluvial 
flats  crossed  by  the  many  channels  or  mouths  of  the  river  are  called 
deltas.  The  basin  of  a  river  is  the  tract  of  land  drained  by  the  main 
stream  and  its  branches  ;  and  sometimes  includes  a  vast  extent  of 
country,  as  with  the  Mississippi,  where  the  basin  extends  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Alleghanies. 

A  river-system  consists  of  all  the  rivers  with  their  branches  that 
flow  from  the  same  water-shed,  in  the  same  general  direction,  and 
into  the  same  ocean. 

Navigable  rivers  promote  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  a  country, 
by  opening  it  to  trade  with  other  parts  of  the  world.  Sailing  vessels 
ascend  the  larger  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance,  and  steamboats 
take  their  place  on  smaller  streams.  The  productions  of  one  region 
are  thus  easily  carried  to  another,  and  foreign  luxuries  brought  into 
the  interior  of  a  continent.  Not  all  rivers  are  useful  for  transporta- 
tion, as  some  flow  through  cold,  barren  countries,  that  produce  little; 
and  others  are  too  much  obstructed  by  rocks  or  sand-bars  to  be  navi- 
gable. The  small  streams  of  a  country  are  often  of  great  importance 
in  supplying  ivater-power  for  turning  the  machinery  of  manufacturing 
and  saw-mills. 

Water  absorbed  in  the  earth  takes  some  taste  of  the  peculiar  soil 
and  minerals  through  which  it  flows.  This  taste  is  usually  so  slight 
that  river-water  is  called  fresh,  as  compared  with  the  salt  water  of 
the  sea.  In  some  cases,  however,  streams  or  springs  issue  from  the 
ground  so  strongly  impregnated  with  iron,  sulphur,  or  salt,  that  they 
are  called  mineral-springs.  Such  waters  are  often  beneficial  in  vari- 
ous diseases,  and  are  visited  by  people  from  great  distances. 

Lakes  are  bodies  of  fresh  water  that  fill  hollows  or  depressions 
in  the  land,  and  are  fed  by  streams  from  the  nearest  hills,  while  other 
streams  serve  as  their  outlets  to  the  sea. 

PLANTS. 

[Refer  to  Map  on  page  169.] 

Vegetation  is  most  luxuriant  in  the  hot,  moist  climates  of  the  torrid 
zone,  gradually  disappearing  toward  the  poles  ;  and  there  is  great 
variety  of  size  and  form,  from  majestic  forest  trees  that  live  through 
centuries,  to  tiny  herbs  that  grow  for  a  season,  blossom,  and  die. 

Classification.  —  The  botanist   classifies   the  vegetation  of  our 

Questions.  —  What  is  a  glacier,  and  how  is  it  formed  ?  What  causes  a  freshet  ? 
How  are  the  direction  and  length  of  rivers  determined  ?  What  is  a  w-ater-shed  ?  A 
river-bed  ?  How  is  a  delta  formed  ?  What  is  a  river-basin  ?  A  river-system  ?  Men- 
tion the  uses  of  rivers.  What  is  said  of  river-water  ?  What  are  miueml-springs  ? 
What  are  lakes  ?    Where  is  vegetation  most  luxuriant  1 


PLANTS. 


11 


earth  according  to  differences  of  structure  and  modes  of  growth  ;  but 
we  can  only  refer  here  to  a  few  well-known  divisions. 

Deciduous-leaved  trees  are  those  which  lose  their  leaves  in  winter, 
and  they  belong  chiefly  to  the  temperate  zones. 

Evergreens  are  trees  with  needle-like  leaves,  which  remain  green 
all  the  year.  Most  of  them  bear  cones,  like  the  pine,  fir,  hemlock, 
and  larch,  and  abound  in  cold  countries.  The  cedar  and  cypress  are 
found  chiefly  in  warm  climates. 

Palms  are  tropical  trees  with  no  branches,  and  clusters  of  long, 
feathery  leaves  at  the  top  of  their  tall  trunks.  The  date-palm,  cocoa- 
palm,  oil-palm,  and  fan-palm  are  among  the  most  useful  species. 
Sago  is  obtained  from  the  pith  of  another  species,  which  grows  in 
South  America  and  the  East  Indies. 

Shrubs  are  plants  with  woody,  branching  stems,  and  of  perennial 
growth.  Tea,  coflee,  and  other  useful  plants  are  among  the  shrubs  ; 
while  many  of  them  are  very  ornamental. 

Vises  include  large  climbing-plants  and  the  slender  twiners.  The 
grape-vine  and  hop-vine  are  familiar  examples.  Immense  woody 
vines  interlacing  the  trees  of  the  tropical  forests  are  called  lianas. 

The  Flowerless  Plants  —  such  as  ferns  and  mosses  —  have  no 
flowers,  and  bear  spores  in  place  of  fruit  or  seeds. 

Ferns  are  delicate,  graceful  plants,  with  their  spores  in  little  clus- 
ters or  rows  upon  the  back  of  tiieir  leaves,  called  fronds ;  or  some- 
times upon  separate  stems.  The  ferns  of  the  temperate  zones  are 
small  annuals  ;  but  within  the  tropics  they  attain  to  the  size  of 
trees. 

Mosses  are  low,  tufted  plants,  with  their  spores  in  little  boxes, 
called  capsules,  raised  upon  a  slender  stem,  and  usually  opening  by 


a  lid.  Though  diminutive,  they  are  very  varied  and  beautiful 
plants. 

Lichens  are  tlie  dry,  flat  growth  found  upon  stones,  fences,  and  the 
bark  of  trees.  One  species  forms  the  gray  tufts  which  hang  from 
old  trees  in  our  forests. 

Fungi  form  another  class  of  simple  yet  important  plants,  and  in- 
clude mushrooms  (some  species  of  which  are  eaten  as  delicacies), 
mildew,  mould,  rust  in  grain,  &c. 

Algce  are  salt  or  fresh  water  plants  ;  and  probably  the  first  vegeta- 
tion on  the  earth's  surface  belonged  to  this  class.  Next  lichens 
grew  upon  the  bare  rocks,  and  by  their  decay  made  a  thin  soil. 
Mosses,  ferns,  rushes,  and  grasses  followed  ;  then,  as  the  soil 
became  thicker,  palms  and  forest  trees  ;  and  finally  the  prfes- 
ent  rich  and  varied  vegetation  of  the  earth  appeared,  which  adds 
much  to  the  beauty  of  our  world,  and  supplies  many  of  our 
wants. 

Flora. —  Different  plants  require  not  only  different  degrees  of  lieat 
and  moisture,  but  difl'erent  soils ;  and  many  are  so  dependent  upon 
the  particular  nourishment  which  they  absorb  from  the  earth,  through 
their  roots,  that  they  die  if  transplanted  into  an  unsuitable  soil. 
Thus  each  climate  and  each  region  of  the  earth  has  its  peculiar  vege- 
tation, adapted  to  the  prevailing  temperature  and  soil.  The  date 
ripens  under  a  tropical  sun,  the  apple  thrives  best  in  a  temperate 
climate,  and  the  hardy  birch  lives  through  the  severe  arctic  win- 
ters. Within  these  broad  limits  of  the  zones  each  family  or  species 
of  plants  chooses  its  "habitat"  or  home.  The  alders  and  wil- 
lows follow  streams  in  search  of  moisture,  the  cranberry  creeps 
over  the  salt  meadow  of  the  sea-shore,  and  the  golden-rod  blooms 


Tropical  Vegetation. 


Questions.  —  Wliat  are  deciduous-leaved  trees  ?  What  are  evergreens  ?  Describe 
palms.  What  are  shrubs  ?  What  is  said  of  vines  ?  What  are  spores  ?  Describe 
ferns.     Mosses.     Lichens.     What  is  said  of  fungi  ?    Of  algai  ?    Why  arc  different 


]ilants  found  in  <lifferent  countries  ?    Why  do  plants  often  die  when  transplanted  ? 
What  is  the  habitat  of  a  plant  ?    Give  some  examples. 


12 


OUR  WORLD. 


by  the  dusty  roadside.  Many  plants  are  found  in  one  small  prov- 
ince or  island  that  grow  nowhere  else  ;  while  other  plants  grow 
abundantly  in  various  parts  of  the  earth  ;  or  more  frequently 
the  plant  of  one  country  is  represented  in  another  by  a  kindred 
species,  with  larger  or  smaller  flowers,  or  with  rougher  or  smoother 
leaves. 

Many  foreign  trees  and  shrubs  have  been  introduced  into  countries 
where  the  climate  and  soil  were  favorable  to  their  growth.  The 
peach  was  brought  to  us  from  the  east ;  and  the  potato,  now  so  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Ireland,  was  carried  there  from  America. 
These,  however,  are  exceptional  cases,  and  the  plants  of  different 
parts  of  the  world  remain  sufficiently  distinct  to  give  a  peculiar 
character  to  the  scenery  of  each.  This  characteristic  vegetation  of 
any  region  or  climate  is  called  its  flora. 

Distribution  of  Plants.  —  1.  Torrid  Zone. — The  most  luxuri- 
ant vegetation  is  naturally  found  in  the  hot  climates  of  the  torrid 
zone.  There  plants  grow  with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  often  attain 
an  immense  size  ;  flowers  are  large  and  brilliant  in  color ;  and  ferns 
grow  to  the  dimensions  of  trees.  But  there  are  strong  contrasts  in 
the  fertility  of  different  regions  of  this  zone.  Where  there  is  abun- 
dant moisture,  as  in  parts  of  South  America  and  Asia,  the  dense 
forests,  with  their  gigantic  trees,  rank  undergrowth  of  shrubs,  and 
coiling  vines,  become  impenetrable,  even  to  the  sun's  rays.  Other 
regions  in  the  interior  of  Africa  and  Australia,  where  there  is  little 
or  no  moisture,  are  destitute  of  vegetation.  No  trees  are  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  tropics  as  the  many  varieties  of  palm,  which  supply 
the  inhabitants  with  almost  every  necessity  of  life.  Fruit-trees  form 
a  considerable  part  of  tropical  forests.  There  grow  dye-woods,  cab- 
inet-woods, and  gum-producers,  together  with  fragrant  woods  and 
spices  of  all  kinds.  Reeds  grow  to  a  great  size,  and  serve  important 
uses  ;  and  vines,  that  with  us  cling  to  the  stronger  plants  for  sup- 
port, seem  rather  to  crush  and  bind  the  huge  forest  trees  in  their 
coils.  Of  the  lesser  plants,  innumerable  varieties  of  cacti,  aloes,  and 
other  fleshy  species  abound,  often  covering  large  tracts  with  an  im- 
penetrable thicket. 

2.  Temperate  Zones.  —  In  the  temperate  zones  the  change  of  sea- 
sons, as  well  as  the  moderate  degree  of  heat,  afl'ects  the  character 
of  the  vegetation.  "  The  growth  of  plants  is  suspended  during  the 
winter,  trees  lose  their  leaves,  and  herbs  die,  to  be  renewed  the  next 
season  from  the  last  year's  scattered  seeds.  Vegetation,  thus  periodi- 
cally checked,  and  never  forced  by  a  great  degree  of  heat,  is  neither 
so  rapid  nor  so  luxuriant  as  in  the  torrid  zone.  In  the  subtropical 
or  intermediate  region  between  these  zones,  the  change  from  the 
tropical  character  of  the  vegetation  is  gradual  and  in  some  localities 
scarcely  perceptible.  Oranges  and  bananas  a.ve  still  seen,  sugar-cane 
is  grown,  the  palm  is  replaced  by  the  palmetto,  the  olive  and  magnolia 
alternate  with  the  chestnut  and  walnut  of  the  warm  temperate  zone, 
and  cultivated  lands  produce  cotton  and  rice.  The  prevailing  trees  of 
the  temperate  zone  proper  arc  oaks,  maples,  beecJies,  poplars,  elms, 
and  others.  Mingled  with  these  are  evergreens,  — jnnes,  firs, 
larches,  and  cedars;  and  in  the  north  temperate  regions  the  for- 
ests ai-e  almost  wholly  of  pines  and  firs  iiitcrmingled  witli  birches. 
The  fruit-trees  are  mostly  cultivated  trees  ;  and  of  these  the 
most  common  are  apples,-  pears,  peaches,  plums,  and  cherries. 
Grains  are  extensively  cultivated  over  the  whole  region  ;  and  the 

Questdona.  —  What  is  said  of  tlie  peach  1  The  potato  ?  What  name  is  given  to 
the  vegetation  of  any  one  region  ?  Wliere  is  vegetation  most  luxuiiant  ?  What  con- 
trasts are  mentioned?  Describe  the  flora  of  the  torrid  zone.  Why  is  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  temix!rate  zones  less  luxuriant  than  that  of  the  torrid  zone  ?  What 
trees  of  the  subtropical  flora  are  mentioned  ?  Describe  the  flora  of  the  temperate 
zones. 


forests  alternate  with  wheat  and  corn-fields,  or  meadow-lands  and 
vineyards. 

3.  Frigid  Zones.  —  As  might  be  expected,  the  arctic  flora  is  poor 
and  meagre.  The  forests  dwindle,  northward,  to  a  few  stunted  pines 
or  birches,  and  some  species  of  the  smaller  plants  spring  up  from  the 
partially  thawed  earth  during  the  short  summer.  In  the  extreme 
north  only  juosses  and  lichens  are  found,  and  at  last  even  these  vanish 
in  an  utter  desolation  of  ice  and  barren  rocks.  Sometimes  the  snow 
of  these  regions  is  reddened  for  miles  by  a  simple  little  plant  which 
spreads  rapidly  over  it,  and  is  called  red  snow.  Though  land  has 
been  discovered  around  the  south  pole,  little  is  yet  known  of  its 
plants  and  animals. 

4.  Upon  Mountains.  — A  change  of  vegetation  similar  to  that  from 
the  equator  to  the  poles  is  also  seen  in  ascending  high  mountain- 
chains  in  the  torrid  zone.  At  their  bases  will  be  found  the  luxuriant 
tropical  growth  of  palms,  fruits,  vines,  parasites,  and  air  plants,  — • 
higher  up,  the  oaks,  chestnuts,  and  pines  of  the  temperate  zone,  — 
and,  lastly,  the  scanty  vegetation  that  precedes  the  line  of  perpetual 
snow. 

5.  In  the  Ocean.  —  Not  even  the  portion  of  the  earth's  surface 
that  is  covered  by  water  is  without  its  flora ;  and,  adapted  to  their 
home  in  the  salt  sea,  are  plants  of  rare  grace  and  beauty,  though 
called  by  the  name  of  weeds.  Algai,  or  seaweeds,  are  not  found, 
like  most  land-plants,  with  green  foliage  and  flowers  of  diflerent 
hues,  but  are  variously  colored  throughout ;  —  tiny  pink  sprays, 
most  delicately  branched  ;  clusters  of  purple  plumes  ;  gigantic 
leaves  of  the  yellow  sea-fan,  growing  from  the  rocks  below,  and 
floating  their  five  feet  of  length  upon  the  water ;  masses  of  green 
thrown  along  the  shore,  like  tangled  skeins  of  thread  ;.  and  long 
brown  wreaths  of  the  common  sargasso,  whirled  round  in  vast  quan- 
tities by  the  circling  currents  of  the  Atlantic.  Seaweeds  have  their 
uses  as  well  as  beauty.  Some  are  patl^tious,  containing  a  large  por- 
tion of  vegetable  jelly  ;  and  the  ashes  of  several  species  are  useful 
in  the  arts,  or  for  fertilizing  soils.  Among  the  most  common  and 
abundant  seaweeds  are  the  wrack,  thrown  in  great  beds  on  the 
coasts  of  Europe  ;  the  dulse;  and  the  carrageen,  often  called  Irish 
moss. 

Uses  of  Plants.  —  P''or  most  of  the  necessaries  and  luxuries 
of  life  we  are  indebted  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom. 

For  Food.  — The  grains  supply  us  with  bread,  and  furnish  food  for 
cattle.  Fruits  may  be  regarded  more  as  luxuries  than  as  substantial 
food  in  the  colder  climates,  where  meat  is  so  largely  consumed,  but 
in  warm  countries  they  are  chiefly  depended  upon,  and  are  often 
cultivated  as  the  main  crop  or  subsistence  of  the  inhabitants.  .Da!es 
are  thus  used  in  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  and  olives  and  olive  oil 
serve  as  daily  food  to  the  peasants  of  the  Mediterranean  shores,  be- 
side being  exported  in  immense  quantities  to  other  countries.  Many 
fruits  are  preserved  as  sweetmeats,  or  dried,  either  for  exportation 
or  for  home  use.  Dates,  figs,  prunes,  and  currants  come  to  us  in  this 
form,  and  the  boxes  of  raisins,  or  dried  grapes,  that  are  consumed, 
could  scarcely  be  estimated.  Hoots,  tubers,  seeds,  and  stems  or  leaves 
of  various  herbs  form  a  large  class  of  food-plants,  especially  in  tem- 
perate and  hot  countries,  where  vegetable  food  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. Tapioca  is  prepared  from  the  root  of  a  tropical  plant  found 
chiefly  in  Africa. 


Questions.  —  Describe  the  arctic  flora.  What  changes  of  vegetation  are  observed 
in  ascending  high  mountains  ?  What  is  said  of  ths  flora  of  the  ocean  ?  Of  the  uses 
of  seaweeds  ?  For  what  are  we  indebted  to  vegetation  ?  What  are  the  food-plants, 
and  what  is  said  of  them  ? 


PLANTS. — ANIMALS. 


13 


For  Clothino.  —  More 
than  half  tlic  human  race 
are  clothed  with  the  fab- 
rics made  from  the  fibres 
of  the  collon-2)lant,  or  the 
flax ;  and  the  silk  worms 
must  be  fed  upon  mul- 
berry leaves  in  order 
to  furnish  us  with  silk. 
Hemp  and  various  fibrous 
plants  of  the  tropics  are 
used  for  sail-cloth,  bag- 
ging, and  cordage  of 
every  description.  Mat- 
ting and  baskets  are 
made  from  the  leaves  of 
palms  and  from  various 
barks.  Jute,  or  Manila 
homp,  is  made  into  ropes, 

Hcmp-plant.  mats,   &C. 

Beverages.  —  Our  common  beverages  are  obtained  from  the  vege- 
table world  ;  tea  from  the  leaf  of  a  shrub  in  China ;  cqfee  from  the  ber- 
ry of  one  tropical  shrub, 
and  cocoa  and  chocolate 
from  the  seed  of  another. 
Wine  is  made  from  the 
grape  ;  '  beer  from  malt 
and  hops  ;  and  whiskey 
is  distilled  from  grain. 

Oils.  —  Most  of  the  oils 
in  common  use  are  of  vege- 
table ori  gin .    Olive  or  sweet 
\i ^      /^s^kL^HIkr^  oil  is  consumed  largely  for 

the  table,  for  medicinal 
purposes,  and  for  the  finer 
kinds  of  machinery.  Lin- 
seed ov  flax-seed  oil  is  con- 
stantly used  in  paint ;  and 
castor-oil,  from  the  castor- 
Co'fcc-piant.  bcan,  a  handsome,  shrubby 

plant  of  warm  countries,  is  one  of  the  common  medicines.  More 
or  less  oil  is  extracted  from  the  various  nuts, — peanuts,  walnuts, 
almonds,  and  others  ;  and  costly  oils  are  obtained  in  small  quantities 
from  flowers,  for  making  perfumes  and  flavoring  extracts. 

Gums  or  saps.  —  Many  of  our  most  common  wants  are  supplied 
by  the  saps  or  juices  of  trees  or  plants,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  gums 
or  resins.  Tar,  pilch,  and  turpentine,  all  obtained  from  pine-trees, 
are  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  espe- 
cially in  ship-building.  India-rubber  or  the  gum  of  the  caoutchouc, 
a  tropical  tree,  is  not  only  used  for  making  various  articles  water- 
proof, but  for  bands  and  rollers  in  machinery,  and  other  purposes 
where  elasticity  is  required.  Gum  Arabic  and  other  similar  gums 
are  used  in  immense  quantities  for  cements,  for  sizing  or  glazing  cloth 
and  paper,  and  for  varnishes.  Aromatic  gums,  camphor,  myrrh,  and 
others,  serve  as  medicines.  Sugar  is  obtained  from  the  sap  of  the 
sugar-cane,  from  beets,  and  also  from  a  species  of  maple. 

Dyes  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  vegetable  products,  chiefly  ob- 
tained from  tropical  woods  or  juices,  and  are  constantly  imported 

Questions.  —  What  plants  are  used  for  clothing  ?  For  beverages  ?  For  oils  ? 
Mention  the  useful  gtuns  or  saps. 


Logwood  is  one 


Oak-pills, 


Pepper  and  nut- 


by  manufacturers  of  cloth  in  Europe  and  America, 
of  the  common  dye-stuffs  for  producing 
dark-reds  and  purples.  Brazil-wood,  from 
a  tree  of  South  America,  is  used  for  bright 
red  dyes.  Fustic,  a  tropical  wood,  is 
largely  used  for  yellows  and  browns. 
Madder,  the  root  of  a  plant  cultivated 
largely  in  Europe,  produces  the  bright 
color  called  Turkey  red,  and  from  it  are 
also  obtained  purples  and  paler  reds. 
The  flowers  of  a  species  of  crocus  yield 
the  well-known  saffron;  and  from  the  In- 
digo plant  common  blue  dyes  are  obtained. 
NulgalU,  excrescences  produced  by  insects 
upon  oak  leaves,  are  used  for  setting  dyes 
and  making  ink. 

Spices  are  obtained  chiefly  from  tropical  plants. 
megs  arc  from  the  fruit ;  cinnamon  from  tlie  bark  ;  and  ginger  from 
the  root ;  while  cloves  are  dried  flower  buds. 

Barks  of  various  kinds  have  their  important  uses.  The  bark  of 
some  species  of  oak  yields  tannin,  for  making  leather ;  and  cork, 
which  is  so  extensively  used,  is  the  bark  of  another  oak.  Quinine, 
one  of  the  most  useful  medicines,  is  made  from  the  well-known  cin- 
chona or  Peruvian  bark. 

Wood. —  No  product  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  of  greater  use 
to  man  than  the  hard  wood,  from  trunks  of  trees.  1st,  as  fuel,  —  not 
only  for  household  purposes,  but  for  making  steam  to  move  boats, 
cars,  and  machinery;  for  smelting  ores  at  mines;  and  for  making  gases 
and  other  chemicals  used  in  manufactures,  even  the  ashes  being 
valuable.  2d,  for  lumber  for  building  purposes  and  for  furniture. 
The  forests  of  different  climates  furnish  woods  of  every  degree  of 
hardness,  —  the  soft,  light,  easily-split  wood  of  the  pine,  the  harder 
and  more  durable  oak,  walnut,  chestnut,  cherry,  and  poplar,  and  the 
fine,  close-grained  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  ebony,  that  take  a  high 
polish,  and  are  called  cabinet-woods.  Teak,  one  of  the  hardest 
woods,  and  much  used  in  ship-building,  is  imported  from  India ;  and 
sandal-wood  is  a  fragrant  wood  of  the  torrid  zone.  Bamboo,  the 
largest  of  the  reed  plants,  often  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  East  for  building  and  other  purposes. 

ANIMALS. 

[Refer  to  Map  on  page  109  ] 

Animals,  like  plants,  are  distributed  over  the  earth,  and  adapted 
in  form  and  habits  not  only  to  each  zone  but  to  particular  localities  ; 
—  thus  goats  browse  on  rocky  heights,  —  horses,  deer,  buffaloes,  and 
gazelles  herd  together  on  open  plains,  — the  hyena  prowls  on  the  des- 
ert, —  and  the  beaver  makes  its  dam  in  American  rivers. 

Distribution  of  Animals.  —  1.  Torrid  Zone.  —  The  torrid  zone 
with  its  luxuriant  vegetation  is  also  the  most  favorable  to  the  devel- 
opment of  animal  life.  There  are  to  be  found  the  largest  and  fiercest 
quadrupeds,  —  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  giraffe,  lion,  tiger,  and  leop- 
ard;  the  most  enormous  and  venomous  serpents,  —  the  boa-constric- 
tor, python,  and  cobra.  There  are  also  the  monster  apes,  baboons, 
and  gorillas,  and  monkeys  of  every  kind.  There  are  the  largest  and 
most  brilliant  birds,  —  the  ostrich,  emu,  parrots,  cockatoos,  and  birds 
of  paradise ;   and  iusects  of  various  kinds  in  such  numbers  as  to 

Questions.  —  Mention  the  dye-plants.  What  is  said  of  spices  ?  Of  barks  ?  Wliat 
uses  are  made  of  ivood  ?  What  are  the  cabinet-woods  ?  What  is  said  of  teak  ?  Of 
sandal-wood  ?  Of  bamboo  ?  W^hat  is  said  of  the  distribution  of  animals  ?  What  kind 
of  aniraala  belong  to  the  torrid  zone  ? 


14 


OUR  WORLD. 


become  a  terror  to  men  and  animals.  The  mosquitoes  and  venom- 
ous ants  of  the  Amazon  forests  are  a  great  annoyance  to  travellers  ; 
and  the  chigo,  another  South  American  insect,  so  small  as  to  be 
scarcely  visible,  introduces  itself  beneath  the  skin  of  the  feet,  often 
causing  great  suffering.  The  sting  of  the  tsetse,  a  small  fly  of  Cen- 
tral Africa,  is  fatal  to  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  the  swarms  of  locusts 
which  appear  suddenly  in  the  East,  like  a  dark  cloud  over  the  land, 
devour  all  vegetation  in  a  short  time,  and  then  vanish,  leaving  behind 
them  famine,  disease,  and  death. 

2.  Temperate  Zones.  —  The  most  common  animals  of  the  temperate 
zones  are  among  the  most  widely  distributed  and  useful,  —  the  horse, 
dog,  cow,  sheep,  goaf,  deer,  beaver,  rabbit,  and  squirrel.  The  birds  are 
usually  smaller  and  less  gay  in  plumage,  but  are  sweeter  singers 
than  those  of  the  tropics.  The  serpents  and  insects  are  much  less 
numerous  and  hurtful,  with  the  exception  that  several  kinds  of  cater- 
pillars are  injurious  to  vegetation. 

3.  Frigid  Zones.  — In  the  severe  climate  of  the  frigid  zones  animals 
are  provided  with  thick  coverings  of  hair  or  fur,  and  there  are  found 
the  polar  bear,  lynx,  and  fox,  the  ermine,  marten,  and  sable,  and 
cider-duck  with  its  soft  down.  Animals  are  much  more  numerous 
than  plants,  though  there  is  less  variety  of  species,  and  long  after  all 
vegetation  has  disappeared,  bears  and  foxes  roam  over  fields  of  ice, 
seals  and  walruses  abound  in  the  waters  or  lie  in  the  sun  upon  rocks 
and  ice-banks,  and  myriads  of  sea-fowl  frequent  the  islands  and  rocky 
inlets  of  the  arctic  shores. 


Sea-fowl. 

Fauna.  —  Some  animals  are  easily  introduced  from  one  country  into 
another,  but  many  others  are  so  peculiarly  adapted  to  one  climate  or 
region,  that  they  cannot  live  elsewhere.  The  horse  has  been  domes- 
ticated over  a  large  part  of  the  world,  but  monkeys  and  parrots  be- 
long to  a  warm  climate,  and  are  always  associated  in  our  minds  with 
the  palms  and  bananas  of  the  tropics. 

The  animals  characteristic  of  a  zone  or  country  constitute  its 
fauna. 


Questions.  —  What  kind  of  animals  belong  to  the  temperate  zones  ?  To  the  frigid 
zones  ?  What  animal  is  widely  domesticated  ?  What  is  said  of  monkeys  and  parrots  ? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  fauna  ? 


As  is  the  case  with  plants,  the  same  animal  is  represented  in  dif- 
ferent countries  by  difl'ereut  species.  In  the  western  continent  alli- 
gators take  the  place  of  the  African  crocodile.  The  bison  is  the 
American  buifalo,  and  the  elephants  of  Asia  and  Africa  are  easily 
distinguished. 

Migrating.  —  Beside  the  introduction  of  animals  from  country 
to  country,  there  is  another  exception  to  the  general  law  of  dis- 
tinctive faunas.  Many  of  the  birds  are  so  dependent  for  food 
on  berries,  seeds,  or  insects,  that,  when  winter  comes  and  the 
forests  are  bare  of  leaves  and  fruit,  they  migrate,  or  leave  the 
cold  climates  and  fly,  sometimes  thousand:3  of  miles,  to  warmer 
countries. 

Uses  of  Animals. —  Animals,  if  sometimes  formidable  and  trouble- 
some to  man,  are  invaluable  for  many  purposes  ;  and,  as  civiliza- 
tion advances,  they  are  feared  less  and  used  more.  The  flesh  of 
many  supplies  the  chief  food  of  mankind  ;  and  milk,  butter,  and 
cheese  are  very  generally  used.  The  tougher  skins  are  tanned  into 
leather  by  all  nations  ;  the  soft  furs  protect  from  cold  ;  and  the  hair 
of  goats  and  sheep  is  woven  into  various  woollen  fabrics.  The  horns 
make  combs  and  handles,  and  the  bones  are  burned  for  lime.  From 
their  fat  is  obtained  lard,  tallow-candles,  oil,  and  soap.  The  feathers 
of  fowls  are  used  for  various  purposes,  and  their  eggs  are  eaten. 
Insects  give  us  dyes  and  varnish,  and  make  our  honey.  And  lastly, 
several  of  the  strongest,  most  easily  tamed,  and  widely  distributed 
animals  labor  for  us,  —  plough,  draw  vehicles,  and  carry  heavy 
burdens ;  such  are  the  horse,  ox,  butfalo,  camel,  ass,  reindeer,  and 
dog. 

Classification.  —  As  botany  tells  the  history  of  plants,  so  zoology 
describes  the  structure,  habits,  and  classification  of  animals.  We 
can  only  mention  here  the  chief  divisions,  and  most  important  char- 
acteristics. 

1.  Vertebrates  are  animals  that  have  a  vertebral  column,  or  back- 
bone, and  this  department  includes  all  the  higher  animals,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, and  fishes. 

2.  Articulates  have  their  bodies  composed  of  successive  rings  or 
joints,  as  insects,  lobsters,  and  worms. 

3.  MoLLUSKS  are  soft-bodied  animals,  with  or  without  a  shell,  as 
snails,  slugs,  and  oysters. 

4.  Radiates  are  the  lowest  department  of  animals,  with  their  or- 
gans radiating  from  a  centre,  like  sea-urcliins,  starfish,  and  coral 
polyps. 

Under  these  four  great  departments  animals  are  further  classified, 
according  to  their  structure  and  distinctive  peculiarities.  The  large 
division  of  quadrupeds  includes  all  four-legged  creatures,  which  are 
sub-divided  by  their  habits.  The  ruminants  are  such  as  "chew  the 
cud,"  as  the  cow,  sheep,  or  goat.  These  animals,  feeding  on  grass 
or  hay,  —  a  rather  dry  sort  of  food,  —  could  not  eat  enough  at  one 
time  if  they  had  to  chew  it  fully.  They  are,  therefore,  provided  with 
more  than  one  stomach,  and,  having  taken  a  supply  of  scarcely  bro- 
ken grass  into  the  first  stomach,  they  lie  or  stand  quietly  while  it  is 
returned  little  by  little  into  the  mouth  and  chewed  into  a  proper  form 
for  digestion.  The  rodents  are  the  gnawers,  —  such  as  rats,  mice,  and 
squirrels.  They  are  mostly  small  animals,  that  gnaw  almost  contin- 
ually, not  only  in  the  act  of  eating,  but  to  keep  their  teeth,  which 
never  stop  growing,  worn  down  to  the  proper  size.  Carnivorous 
animals  are  those  that  live  upon  flesh,  —  as  cats,  dogs,  bears,  etc.    The 


Questions.  —  Are  the  species  of  animals  identical  in  opposite  hemispheres  ?  What 
is  meant  by  migration  ?  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of  animals  ?  What  is  zoology  ? 
What  ai-e  the  four  gieat  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom  ?  What  are  vertebrates  ? 
Articulates  ?  Mollusks  ?  Radiates  ?  What  are  ruminants  ?  What  are  rodents  ? 
CarniYorous  animals  !    Marsupials  ? 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


15 


cat  tribe  or  family  includes  the  tiger,  panther,  leopard,  jaguar,  all  of    otliers.     Marsupiahs  or  pouched  animals  carry  their  young  in  a  pouch 


which  tear  with  their  strong  claws,  and  have  the  reputation  of  being 
cruel   and  sly.     The  dog  family  includes  the  wolf,  jackal,  fox,  and 


under  the  stomach,  as  the  opossum  of  our  own  country,  and  the 
kangaroo  of  Australia. 


INHABITANTS    OF   THE    EARTH. 


Through  long  ages  of  preparation  the  earth  was  fitted  for  the  hab- 
itation of  ihe  human  race  ;  and,  from  the  history  of  man  thus  far,  we 
learn  that  he  was  destined  by  the  Creator  to  develop  into  his  full 
perfection  by  his  own  labor,  and  by  the  continued  use,  generation 
after  generation,  of  the  resources  placed  within  his  reach.  Notwitli- 
standing  many  mistakes  and  delays,  great  improvements  have  already 
been  made  in  the  habits  and  condition  of  mankind,  upon  the  simple 
beginnings  of  savage  life  ;  but  the  wonderful  resources  of  our  globe 
are  not  yet  exhausted. 

Civilization.  —  In  the  earliest  savage  condition  of  a  people,  the 
first  eflurts  are  only  to  satisfy  the  actual  wants  of  life.  Men  hunt 
and  fish  to  supply  themselves  with  food  ;  when  cold  requires  them  to 
clothe  their  bodies,  they  wear  the  skins  of  animals  ;  and  when  forced 
to  protect  themselves  from  the  weather,  or  from  wild  beasts,  their 
first  dwellings  arc  caves  or  rude  huts  of  boughs  or  mud,  thatched 
with  tough  grass.  Very  soon  the  urgent  need  of  vessels  to  hold 
food  and  drink,  leads  to  the  discovery  that  clay  can  be  made  into 
bowls  or  jars,  and  hardened  in  the  sun ;  and  the  long,  tough  fibres  of 
palm-leaves  or  pliable  reeds,  so  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  earth, 
are  woven  into  mats,  baskets,  and  ropes.  By  and  by,  some  tribes 
begin  to  keep  largo  herds  of  cattle,  and  so  supply  themselves  with 
meat,  milk,  skins,  and  beasts  of  burden.  Others  learn  to  till  the 
earth,  and  thus  to  provide  a  store  of  grain  or  fruits. 

Further  than  this  man  need  never  have  advanced,  if  he  had  been 
created  only  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  animal  life.  Every  beast,  bird, 
and  insect  provides,  for  itself  and  its  young,  a  home  and  food,  and 
tiien  its  work  is  done;  and  it  was  as  well  done  ages  ago  as  now. 
The  first  beavers  cut  the  logs  and  built  their  houses  as  skilfully  as 
the  beavers  of  this  generation ;  and  ancient  and  modern  bees  have 
made  their  cells  and  stored  their  honey  after  the  same  fashion.  But 
for  man  there  is  always  a  "better  way" ;  — an  idea  once  started,  hu- 
man ingenuity  continues  to  suggest,  to  experiment,  and  to  improve. 
The  first  rude  earthenware-vessels  are  gradually  varied  in  form,  pol- 
ished more  smootlily,  and  ornamented  with  lines  and  figures  ;  and 
fingers  tliat  have  twisted  ropes  or  nets  out  of  grass  or  fibrous  bark, 
learn  presently  to  spin  the  finer  fibres  of  cotton  or  wool  into  smaller 
threads.  From  the  weaving  of  mats  it  is  but  a  step  to  the  weaving 
of  cloth,  and  garments  of  cotton  or  of  wool  replace  the  primitive 
skin-wrappings.  In  time  stone  is  hewn,  iron  wrought  into  tools,  and 
lumber  cut  from  the  forest.  Caves  and  huts  are  succeeded  by  sub- 
stantial houses,  temples,  and  palaces  ;  and  the  bark  canoe  by  ships 
of  various  size  and  form.  Cities  grow  up ;  nations  trade  with  and 
learn  from  one  another ;  arts  and  manufactures  multiply  ;  and  we 
now  find  ourselves  surrounded  by  countless  comforts  and  luxuries, 
which  we  scarcely  recognize  because  they  are  so  easily  obtained  ;  yet 
the  story  of  any  one  of  them,  through  centuries  of  labor,  mistakes,  and 
gradual  improvement  since  the  first  rude  efibrt,  would  fill  a  volume. 

Questions.  —  "What  animals  belong  to  the  cat  tribe  ?  To  the  dog  family  ?  What 
is  the  great  lesson  of  the  history  of  the  human  race  ?  What  are  the  wants  of  a 
people  in  a  savage  condition  ?  What  are  their  first  attempts  at  improvement  ?  What 
difTerenco  between  generations  of  men  and  animals  is  mentioned  ?  Give  some  exam- 
l)les  of  the  early  progi'ess  of  the  human  race.     What  is  civilization  ?     What  mistake 


This  continual  discovery  of  the  resources  of  our  earth,  and  the 
putting  them  to  higher  and  higher  uses,  is  called  civilizatiun ;  and, 
as  man  educates  his  hand  to  labor  skilfully,  his  eye  to  see  the  beauty 
and  uses  of  the  world,  and  his  mind  to  think,  to  understand,  and  to 
imagine,  so  the  wants  and  habits  of  his  life  become  less  and  less  like 
those  of  animals. 

One  of  the  greatest  mistakes  that  has  delayed  civilization  has  been 
the  idea  that  labor,  or  regular  occupation,  was  only  fit  for  the  rude, 
ignorant,  or  mean-spirited.  For  a  long  time  merchants  and  manufac- 
turers were  despised  by  the  nobles,  or  men  of  rank  ;  but  when  they 
had  covered  the  seas  with  their  vessels,  brought  great  wealth  and 
prosperity  into  the  country,  and  become  a  powerful  body,  they  were 
regarded  with  more  consideration,  though  hand-labor  was  still  de- 
spised. Now,  however,  we  are  beginning  to  understand  that  no 
labor  is  degrading,  if  only  it  is  well  done  ;  that  every  man  works  out 
his  own  growth  and  rank  in  the  world,  by  the  use  of  his  own  head  and 
hands;  and  that  wealth,  power,  and  learning  do  the  most  for  their 
possessor,  when  they  enable  him  to  help  others  who  have  fewer  ad- 
vantages, by  protecting  their  rights,  or  aiding  in  their  education. 

All  nations  have  not  advanced  equally  in  civilization.  Some  have 
reached  a  high  degree  of  improvement  in  agriculture,  manufactures, 
art,  and  literature,  and  are  the  civilized  nations.  Others  have  ad- 
vanced considerably  in  some  kinds  of  manufactures,  and  have  a 
literature  of  their  own  ;  but  are  still  ignorant  of  many  useful  arts, 
and  have  little  knowledge  of  the  history  and  condition  of  other  na- 
tions; —  these  are  said  to  be  half -civilized.  There  are  other  tribes 
who  have  remained  in  a  savage  condition,  with  no  written  language 
and  only  the  rudest  manufactures. 

The  natural  features  of  a  country  are  sometimes  unfavorable  to  the 
civilization  of  its  inhabitants.  A  high  plateau  in  the  interior  of  a 
large  continent,  difficult  of  access,  has  no  advantages  for  agriculture, 
no  conveniences  for  trade,  no  materials  for  manufactures ;  therefore 
large  populations  in  cities  could  not  be  supported,  and  the  natives 
remain  savages,  or  rise  only  to  the  condition  of  pastoral  tribes.  In 
many  parts  of  the  torrid  zone,  most  of  the  necessaries  of  life  are 
easily  supplied  from  the  rich  tropical  vegetation,  so  that  the  natives 
have  little  inducement  to  labor  ;  and  the  hot,  often  unhealthy  climate, 
prevents  settlers  from  more  civilized  nations  from  coming  to  stimu- 
late them  to  exertion.  Again,  in  the  frigid  zone  are  lands  where 
life  is  so  hard,  and  where  the  materials  for  civilization  are  so  few, 
that  the  inhabitants  seem  scarcely  able  to  obtain  food  to  eat,  and 
skins  to  cover  them  day  by  day  and  year  by  year  ;  and  even  colonies 
of  missionaries  from  other  countries  can  but  just  exist,  without 
making  much  progress  in  their  manner  of  life.  The  temperate  zones, 
therefore,  furnish  the  best  conditions  for  progress  in  civilization. 

Other  causes,  found  in  the  religion  or  customs  of  a  people,  prevent 
rapid  changes  in  their  condition ;  but  every  century  of  the  world's 


has  retarded  civilization  ?  How  should  labor  be  regarded  ?  AVhen  are  nations  civil- 
ized ?  When  half-civilized  ?  When  savage  ?  How  is  civilization  affected  by  the 
natural  features  of  a  country  ?  What  zone  or  climate  is  most  favorable  to  civili- 
zation ?  Why  ?  What  other  causes  may  prevent  the  rapid  improvement  of  a 
nation  ? 


16 


OUR  WORLD. 


history  shows  some  progress  toward  general  civilization.  Science 
and  art  are  gradually  conquering  all  difficulties  of  nature  ;  and,  since 
such  wonders  have  been  accomplished  as  the  steam-engine  and  the 
ocean-telegraph,  what  may  not  be  possible  in  the  future  ! 

Races.  —  Several  distinct  races  of  men  inhabit  different  parts  of 
the  earth,  quite  unlike  in  color  and  appearance.  These  races  are  di- 
vided into  numerous  tribes,  or  nations,  each  with  its  own  language, 
habits,  and  home  ;  more  or  less  resemblance  existing  between  the 
nations  belonging  to  the  same  race.     The  most  widely  difl'ering  races 


Races  of  Men 


are,  —  1st.  The  while,  or  Caucasian  race,  with  fair  skins  and  vari- 
ously colored  eyes  and  hair.  It  includes  the  Jews,  Arabians,  Hin- 
doos, and  other  inhabitants  of  southwestern  Asia  ;  the  Moors,  and 
other  people  of  north  Africa  ;  and  the  European  and  American  na- 
tions, among  which  are  the  most  civilized  of  the  earth's  inhabitants. 
2d.  The  Asiatics,  or  Orientals,  called  the  Mongolian,  or  yellow  race, 
with  yellow-brown  skins  and  straight,  black  hair.  Those  of  eastern 
Asia  —  the  Chinese  and  Japanese — have  the  distinctive  peculiarity 
of  narrow,  oblique  eyes.  The  Turks,  the  Tartars,  and  the  Arctic 
tribes  of  both  hemispheres  belong  to  this  race.  3d.  The  Malay,  or 
brown  race,  including  the  inhabitants  of  the  scattered  islands  of  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  the  natives  of  Australia,  and  of  the  Ma- 
lay peninsula,  whence  comes  its  name.  The  different  groups  of  this 
race  have  marked  contrasts  in  appearance  and  characteristics ;  but 
have  light  or  dark-brown  skins ;  flat  faces  ;  and  coarse,  black  hair. 
4th.  The  black,  or  Ethiopian  race,  with  black,  or  very  dark  skins  ; 
woolly  hair;  flat  noses;  and  thick  lips.  The  tribes  of  this  race  are 
found  in  tropical  and  southern  Africa,  and  a  large  number  have  been 
transplanted  to  America.  5th.  The  American  Indians,  or  the  red 
race,  native  inhabitants  of  America,  before  it  was  discovered  by  the 
Europeans.     These  have  reddish-brown  skins  ;  coarse,  straight,  black 


Questions.  —  Into  what  races  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  divided  ?  Describe 
the  Caucasian  race.  The  Mongolian.  The  Malay.  The  Ethiopian.  The  American 
Indian. 


hair  ;  and  high  cheek-bones.  Only  a  few  tril^es  have  become  civilized, 
and  many  have  died  out.  Those  still  left  inhabit  unsettled  tracts  in  the 
western  part  of  North  America,  and  various  parts  of  South  America. 

Religion.  —  All  nations  have  ideas  and  forms  of  religion,  which 
greatly  affect  their  life  and  habits  ;  and,  though  many  lesser  differ- 
ences of  religious  opinions  exist,  the  whole  human  race  may  be 
classed  in  four  great  divisions  :  1st.  Jews,  who  believe  in  one  God, 
regard  Moses 'as  their  lawgiver,  and  accept  the  Old  Testament  as 
their  holy  ScHptures.  2d.  Christians,  who  believe  in  one  all-powerful 
God  and  Creator,  and  an  immortal  existence,  aftd  who  try  to  live 
accordfiig  to  the  teaching  and  example  of  Christ.  3d.  Molmmmedans, 
who  also  believe  in  one  God,  but  who  follow  the  teaching  and  ex- 
ample of  their  prophet  Mohammed,  instead  of  Christ.  In  some 
respects  their  moral  laws  resemble  those  of  the  Christians,  but  in 
others  differ  greatly.  4th.  Pagans,  or  those  who  have  many  Gods, 
and  often  worsliip  idols,  or  representations  of  their  divin-ities.  It  is 
the  peculiarity  of  pagans  that  they  worship,  or  propitiate,  cruel  and 
evil  spiritSj  as  well  as  good  spirits  ;  and  such  a  worship  often  gives 
rise  to  superstitions  and  sacrifices  that  are  degrading.  There  are 
various  forms  of  paganism,  each  with  its  peculiar  divinities  and 
ceremonies  ;  and,  in  all  pagan  nations,  a  few  of  the  most  intelligent 
and  thoughtful  persons  understand  a  higher  meaning  in  their  worship, 
and  realize  the  idea  of  one  Great  Spirit. 

Grovernment.  —  All  nations  have  some  ideas  of  government. 
Human  beings  naturally  gather  themselves  in  communities  or  tribes  ; 
feel  the  need  of  some  general  rules,  or  laws,  to  live  by,  and  of  some 
head,  or  leader,  to  govern  or  direct  them.  Not  only  do  men  differ 
greatly  in  their  wishes  and  opinions,  but  the  same  person  thinks  and 
feels  ver'y  differently  at  different  times  ;  therefore  no  community 
could  possibly  continue  in  peace  unless  each  individual,  in  some 
measure,  adapted  his  ^^ill  to  that  of  others. 

Laws  and  government  vary  with  the  spirit,  habits,  and  needs  of 
each  tribe  or  nation  ;  and  the  spirit  of  government  may  be  said  to 
advance  with  civilization.  Generally,  the  more  ignorant  and  savage 
the  people,  the  more  abject  and  unquestioning  their  obedience  and 
fear.  In  barbarous  ages  subjects  looked  with  awe  and  admira- 
tion upon  their  chief,  as  a  superior  being,  even  when  he  oppressed 
and  abused  them  ;  but  as  a  nation  becomes  civilized,  and  the  age 
more  enlightened,  the  ruler  is  more  restrained  by  general  laws  .and 
public  opinion.  While  the  people  recognize,  more  than  ever,  the 
necessity  of  a  ruler  or  director,  they  look  upon  him  only  as  one 
of  themselves,  whose  office  it  is  to  see  that  the  laws,  which  are  for 
the  good  of  all,  are  obeyed  by  all,  while  they  are  engaged  in  their 
daily  occupations. 

There  are  two  distinct  forms  of  government ;  but  many  modifica- 
tions of  each.  In  a  monarchy  the  nation  has  one  head,  chief,  king,  or 
emperor,  who  is  assisted  and  advised  by  some  of  the  chief  men,  in 
making  laws  and  keeping  order.  The  office  is  usually  hereditary, 
that  is,  it  descends  from  father  to  son,  and  the  people  may  be  at  the 
mercy  of  a  very  cruel,  or  a  very  weak  character  ;  though,  happily, 
the  times  are  past  when  one  man  would  be  permitted  to  commit  such 
outrages  as  fill  the  stories  of  the  old  kings  and  emperors. 

In  a  republic  the  people  choose  a  president,  and  a  congress,  or  as- 
sembly, to  carry  on  the  government ;  and  no  one  person  has  entire 
control  of  affairs.  The  president  holds  his  office  for  only  a  certain 
number  of  years. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  religion  ?  Who  are  Christians  ?  Mohammedans  ? 
Pagans  ?  lu  what  other  respect  are  all  nations  alike  ?  What  is  said  of  laws  and 
government  ?  What  are  the  two  distinct  forms  of  government  ?  What  is  a  mon- 
archy ?     A  republic  ? 


OCCUPATIONS.  —  FISHING.  —  AGRICULTURE. 


17 


OCCUPATIONS. 


In  the  early  days  of  civilization,  when  men  were  mak\ng  their  first 
attempts  at  agriculture  and  manufactures,  every  one  did  Jiis  own 
work,  — planted,  gathered,  and  ground  his  grain  ;  wove  his  cloth  ; 
hunted  and  fished  for  himself  But,  by  and  by,  it  was  found  best  to 
sell  or  excliange  labor,  as  well  as  other  things,  —  the  fisherman  sup- 
plied the  weaver  with  fish,  and  the  weaver  made  cloth  enough  to  pay 
for  his  fish  and  his  grain.  Thus  each  man  devoted  himself  to  the  oc- 
cupation that  was  easiest  or  most  profitable  to  him  ;  and  so  there 
came  to  be'weavers,  carpenters,  tanners,  smiths,  dyers,  etc.,  in  every 
community. 

This  exchange  or  division  of  labor  is  very  necessary  to  the  progress 
of  civilization  ;  for,  not  only  is  much  time  saved  thereby,  but  con- 
stant practice  in  one  kind  of  work  enables  a  person  to  do  it  better  ; 
and  the  desire  to  get  a  good  price  for  his  work  urges  him  to  improve 
the  tools  and  materials  ho  uses.  Occupations  become  more  numer- 
ous and  varied  with  the  wants  of  each  succeeding  age;  and  the 
division  of  labor  is  carried  so  far  that  a  number  of  workmen  are  often 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  one  small  object. 

Three  makers  of  straw  hats  gain  by  working  together ;  for,  if  one 
cuts  the  straw,  another  braids,  and  another  sews  the  braids,  much 
more  can  be  accomplished  in  one  day  than  could  be  done  by  one  man 
in  three  days.  The  cost  of  a  pin  or  needle  is  now  so  trifling  that  we 
seldom  consider  its  real  value-;  but,  let  any  one  man  try  to  make 
a  needle,  and  he  finds  that,  1st,  he  must  dig  the  iron  ore  from  the 
mine  ;  2d,  he  must  melt  it  in  a  furnace  to  obtain  the  pure  metal  ;  3d, 
by  a  careful  process  of  heating  and  cooling,  the  iron-  must  be  changed 
into  steel  ;  4th,  he  must  heat  the  steel  and  draw  it  out  into  a  small 
wire  ;  5th,  he  must  cut  oif  the  necessary  length  ;  6th,  one  end  must 
be  sharpened  to  a  fine  point ;  7th,  the  other  end  must  be  drilled 
for  the  eye.  Here,  at  last,  is  the  needle,  buf  certainly  rough  and  ill- 
made,  for  the  want  of  many  little  skilful  touches.  Imperfect  as  it 
is,  it  has  cost  many  days'  labor,  and  the  price  should  be  sufficient 
to  support  the  maker  during  that  time.  Even  now  we  have  not  taken 
into  account  the  furnaces,  nor  the  various  tools  needed  for  drawing 
out  the  wire,  sharpening,  drilling,  and  smoothing ;  all  of  which  must 
have  been  prepared  before  the  needle  could  be  made.  It  is  oidy  by 
majiy  successive  steps  in  the  perfecting  of  labor  that  rapid  and  cheap 
needle-making  has  become  possible.  In  the  first  place,  miners  and 
smelters  have  prepared  the  metal  ;  carpenters  and  masons  have  erect- 
ed convenient  buildings  ;  and  machinists  have  made  the  necessary 
implements.  Then,  too,  the  processes  are  carried  on  by  a  number  of 
workmen,  all  busy  at  once, — some  heating  furnaces,  some  draw- 
ing wire,  others  cutting  it  into  proper  lengths,  others  grinding  points, 
and  others  drilling  eyes.  In  this  way  thousands  of  needles  are  com- 
ph.'ted  in  a  short  time,  all  the  workmen  are  paid,  and  yet  the  cost  of 
each  is  so  small  that  they  are  everywhere  in  general  use,  not  only 
in  households,  but  in  a  variety  of  manufactures. 

It  is  well  for  us  to  remember  sometimes  how  little  even  the  strong- 
est or  most  intelligent  man  can  accomplish  alone,  and  how  dependent 
we  are  upon  our  fellow-beings  for  comfort,  luxury,  civilization  in  fact. 

FISHING. 

As  countries  became  more  thickly  settled,  and  populous  towns 
took  the  place  of  forests,  hunting  was  abandoned  as  a  regular  means 

Queations. —  How  did  various  occupations  arise  ?  M'liat  advantage  is  tliere  in  a 
division  of  lalior?  Why  could  not  one  man  alone  make  a  needle  ?  What  illustrations 
of  ft  division  of  labor  are  mentioned  ?     Wliat  is  said  of  hunting  1     What  of  fishing  ? 


of  subsistence,  and  pursued  only  as  an  exciting  sport ;  but  fish- 
ing, on  the  contrary,  has  continued  to  be  one  of  the  most  general 
and  important  occupations  of  all  nations,  civilized  and  savage.  Many 
of  the  inhabitants  of  sea-shores  and  banks  of  rivers  subsist  almost 
entirely  upon  fish  ;  and  several  kinds  of  fish  are  dried  or  salted,  and 
exported  in  immense  quantities  to  inland  countries.  The  whole 
population  of  many  coast-towns  is  engaged  in  catching,  buying,  sell- 
ing, drying,  and  packing  fish.  In  some  cold,  northern  countries  the 
people  have  only  their  fish  to  exchange  for  foreign  productions  ;  and 
along  the  shores  of  Europe,  the  fishermen  collect  in  communities,  ac- 
quire peculiar  habits,  and  are  easily  recognized  by  their  dress,  or 
manner  of  speaking. 

Among  the  fish  salted  for  exportation  some  of  the  most  important 
are  the  herring,  mackerel,  and  cod ;  all  of  which  belong  to  the  waters 
of  the  temperate  zone.  Appearing,  at  certain  seasons,  in  large  shoals 
along  the  shores  of  Europe  and  North  America,  they  are  taken  in  nets, 
or  with  hook  and  line,  from  fishing-boats  that  are  sent  out  in  fleets 
from  the  coast-towns. 

Salmon  are  regarded  as  a  delicacy,  and  always  sell  at  a  high  price. 
Though  really  salt-water  fish,  they  are  always  taken  in  rivers,  which 
they  visit  at  regular  seasons. 

Whaling  may  be  classed  with  fisheries,  though  the  whale  is  not  a 
fish,  but  a  warm-blooded  animal.  Vessels  are  sent  on  long  voyages 
in  search  of  whales,  to  obtain  the  oil  they  yield,  and  the  whalebone 
now  used  for  various  purposes.  There  is  considerable  danger  and 
excitement  in  securing  a  whale ;  for  the  huge  creature  is  taken  by 
darting  into  it  a  spear,  or  harpoon,  attached  to  the  end  of  a  rope, 
and  a  boat  is  often  upset,  or  a  man  drawn  overboard,  by  the  sudden 
and  violent  plunging  of  the  great,  wounded  creature. 

The  sperm  whale,  or  cachelot,  is  a  species  of  whale  taken  in  the 
Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans ;  and  spermaceti,  of  which  candles  are 
made,  is  the  white,  flaky  fat  obtained  from  its  head.  Ambergris,  a 
waxy  substance  taken  from  this  whale,  and  said  to  be  caused  by  dis- 
ease, is  extensively  used  by  eastern  nations^  as  a  perfume,  and  is  as 
costly  as  musk.  The  ambergris  found  in  one  whale  has  sometimes 
been  quite  a  little  fortune  for  its  owner.  Whale-oil  and  sperm-can- 
dles are  much  less  used  now  that  gas  and  coal-oil  are  so  generally 
introduced,  and  whaling,  as  a  business,  has  declined  of  late  years. 

AGKICULTURE. 

One  of  the  first  steps  in  the  progress  of  a  tribe,  or  people,  has 
usually  been  the  raising  of  grain  for  food.  The  useful  properties  of 
many  plants  were  early  discovered,  and  the  inhabitants  of  fertile 
plains  and  valleys  soon  learned  to  till  the  earth  with  care. 

Thenceforth  there  was  continual  improvement  in  the  implements 
used,  and  increasing  knowledge  of  plants,  till  agriculture,  or  the  cul- 
tivation of  fields,  became  a  science,  and  one  of  the  chief  occupations 
of  man. 

For  a  long  time  progress  was  slow,  but,  as  education  advanced, 
men  observed  more  the  nature  of  plants  and  soils,  and  gradually 
learned,  1st,  that  soils  are  made  up  of  different  substances  in  various 
proportions  ;  2d,  that  different  plants  require  diflTerent  kinds  of  nour- 


Questions.  —  What  are  the  most  important  fisheries  ?  Where  are  salmon  taken  ? 
What  is  said  of  whaling  ?  What  is  obtained  from  whales  ?  What  from  the  sperm 
whale  ?  What  is  ambergris  ?  Why  has  whaling  declined  as  a  business  ?  What  is 
said  of  agriculture  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  tlie  word  ?  What  is  said  about  soils  ? 
About  plants  ? 


J 


18 


OUR  WORLD. 


ishraent,  — a  fact  of  great  importance  to  the  farmer,  who  is  thus  en- 
abled to  use  his  land  to  the  best  advantage  ;  3d,  that  soils  can  be 
renewed  by  spreading  over  the  land  lime,  crushed  bones,  sea-weed, 
ashes,  etc. 

This  knowledge  of  fertilizers  is  of  the  greatest  use,  for,  as  the 
population  of  a  country  increases,  the  land  becomes  exhausted  by 
constant  cultivation.  Guano,  a  deposit  of  sea-fowl  on  uninhabited 
shores  and  islands,  is  so  valuable  as  a  fertilizer,  that  it  is  imported 
by  the  cargo  from  great  distances. 

Experience  teaches  not  only  that  abundant  crops  may  be  produced 
by  cultivation,  but  that  the  nature  of  many  plants  is  greatly  changed. 
Plants  which  are  tough  and  bitter  in  their  wild  state  become  tender, 
juicy,  and  pleasant  to  the  taste.  Tlio  little,  hard,  sour,  wild  apple  is 
made  large,  mellow,  and  sweet.  The  agriculturist  discovers  how  to 
force  growth  by  grafting  and  the  use  of  hot-beds  ;  while,  by  mixing 
seeds  and  other  means,  he  produces  an  endless  variety  of  fruits  and 
vegetables.  The  gardener  learns  how  to  make  his  pinks  and  roses 
larger  and  fuller,  and  the  colors  of  his  flowers  more  brilliant  and  varied. 

Not  satisfied  with  providing  artificial  soils,  the  cultivator  attempts 
an  artificial  climate,  and  in  his  green-houses  the  productions  of  tropical 
countries  thrive  amid  the  snows  of  our  northern  winters. 

Formerly,  agricultural  implements  were  rude,  and  the  work  of  cul- 
tivating was  slow  and  laborious  ;  but  the  first  simple  hoes  have  mul- 


tiplied into  spades,  rakes,  and  pruning-kiiives  of  all  shapes  and  sizes  ; 
mowing,  corn-shelling,  and  threshing-machines,  cotton-presses,  and 
steam-mills  have  been  invented,  and  the  former  work  of  weeks  can 
now  be  better  done  in  a  few  hours. 

The  intelligent  farmer  must  have  not  only  a  knowledge  of  soils 
and  of  plants,  but  also  of  the  various  insects  which  are  injurious  to 
vegetation  ;  especially  of  their  transformations,  and  time  and  manner 
of  depositing  their  eggs.  By  timely  care  millions  of  caterpillars  may 
be  destroyed  in  the  egg,  or  while  very  young.  Birds  were  formerly 
classed  with  the  enemies  of  the  gardener,  and.  mercilessly  killed  ; 
but  it  is  now  thought  that  they  save  more  fruit  than  they  eat,  by 
destroying  immense  numbers  of  insects.  Toads  aid  so  much  in  the 
destruction  of  worms,  that  in  some  countries  they  have  been  imported 
by  the  thousand  for  the  purpose. 

Harvesling,  or  the  gathering  of  the  fruits  of  the  season,  has  al- 
ways been  regarded  as  a  time  of  public  rejoicing  and  thanksgiving. 
The  old  pagans  offered  sacrifices  to  various  divinities,  supposed  to 
favor  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  held  great  festivals  in  their 
honor.  Harvest-festivals  are  still  kept  up  in  different  countries, 
partly  from  the  natural  feeling  of  comfort  and  thanksgiving  that 
comes  with  abundant  stores,  and  partly  because  the  harvesting  of 
certain  crops  requires  a  general  gathering  of  the  people  of  a  province 
or  neighborhood. 


MAITUrACTUEES. 


The  general  term  manufactures  includes  a  great  variety  of  occu- 
pations, which  are  constantly  increasing  as  new  wants  arise.  We 
need  only  mention  here  a  few  of  the  most  common  and  important, 
which  give  employment  to  a  large  portion  of  the  population  of  all 
civilized  countries. 

MINES   AND   METALS. 

Among  the  most  useful  laborers  are  the  workers  in  metal,  —  miners, 
smiths,  and  machinists.  '  They  supply  tools  and  implements  for  all 
other  occupations  ;  ploughs  and  hoes  for  the  agriculturalist ;  ham- 
mers and  nails  for  house  and  ship-builders;  machines  for  manufactur- 
ers ;  typo  and  presses  for  printing  ;  railroad  iron,  telegraph  wires, 
and  water-pipes  ;  in  a  word,  implements  for  all  the  employments  of 
civilized  life. 

Metals  are  not  only  important  in  their  natural  state,  but,  when 
acted  upon  by  chemical  agencies,  they  produce  dyes,  colors  for  paint- 
ers, medicines,  and  various  substances  used  in  the  arts. 

The  different  metals  are,  in  different  degrees,  malleable  or  easily 
beaten  into  thin  plates ;  ductile,  or  capable  of  being  drawn  out  into 
small  wires  ;  tenacious,  or  possessing  great  strength  ;  miA  fusible,  or 
capable  of  being  melted  by  intense  heat,  so  as  to  be  moulded  into 
any  form. 

'  The  use  of  metals  was  known  at  an  early  period,  but,  for  want 
of  proper  implements,  the  ancient  nations  wore  unable  to  obtain 
large  quantities  from  the  earth,  or  to  work  them  on  an  extensive 
scale.  Now,  after  years  of  improvement  and  experience,  the  scien- 
tific methods  of  mining  and  the  chemical  combinations  of  acids, 
gases,  and  metals  produce  wonderful  results. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  about  fertilizing  the  land  ?  What  effect  ha.s  cultivation 
jxpon  plants  ?  How  are  fine  varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables  produced  ?  What  is  the 
difference  between  a  wild  rose  and  a  cultivated  rose  ?  What  improvements  have  been 
made  in  implements  of  agriculture  ?     What  is  said  of  insects  and  birds  ?    What  is 


Mining. — Iron,  lead,  copper,  and  other  metals  exist  in  veins  or  beds, 
running  through  different  strata  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  ;  and  miners 


Veins. 

have  learned  where  to  look  for  these  veins  or  beds,  and  how  to  blast 
great  masses  of  rock,  in  order  to  reach  them.  Shafts  arc  sunk,  and  ex- 
cavations extend  for  miles  under  ground,  so  that  many  hundred  work- 
men may  be  employed  in  the  dark  galleries  and  chambers  of  one  mine. 

said  of  toads  ?  Of  harvesting  ?  What  does  the  term  manufactures  include  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  workers  in  metals  ?  Mention  some  of  the  implements  made  of  metals. 
In  what  other  ways  are  metals  useful  ?  Mention  and  define  the  qualities  of  metals. 
Was  the  use  of  metals  known  to  ancient  nations  ?  Why  were  they  not  worked  suc- 
cessfully ?     How  are  metals  found  in  the  earth's  crust  ?     How  are  they  obtaine<l  ? 


MANUFACTURES. 


19 


Metals  rarely  exist  in  a  pure  state,  but  come  from  the  mines  in  the 
form  of  ore,  or  combined  with  other  substances.  These  ores  are 
subjected  to  tlie  great  heat  of  a  smelting-furnace,  and  the  metal 
melts  and  runs  together  in  a  mass  by  itself.  Some  metals,  however, 
are  less  easily  separated  from  the  ore,  and  require  a  more  complicated 
process.  Smelting  is  done  near  the  mines,  if  possible,  to  avoid  car- 
rying the  heavy  ore  a  long  distance  ;  and  the  value  of  a  mine  is 
greatly  increased  by  a  good  supply  of  fuel  in  the  neighborhood. 

Iron  is  run  from  the  smelting  furnace  into  moulds  formed  in  the 
sand,  and  in  that  state  is  known  as  "pig"  or  cast-iron.  This  casl- 
iron,  being  cheap  and  easily  melted  again,  is  used  for  heavy  portions 
of  machinery,  fences,  fountains,  stoves,  and  cooking  vessels.  Iron 
that  has  been  further  refined,  by  heating  and  by  pressure  under  the 
heavy  rollers  of  the  rolling-mill,  and  made  into  bars  and  sheets,  is 
called  wrought-iron  ;  and,  being  more  malleable  than  cast-iron,  is 
made  into  nails,  screws,  locks,  and  what  is  usually  called  hardware. 
It  is  also  ductile,  and  can  be  drawn  out  into  fine  wire. 

Steel.  —  By  a  still  more  careful  process  of  heating,  cooling,  and 
beating,  the  metal  becomes  harder,  takes  a  finer  polish  and  sharper 
edge  and  rusts  less  easily.  In  this  form  it  is  called  sleel,  and  is 
used  for  all  odged-tools,  knives,  scissors,  needles,  and  pons. 

Lead,  when  freed  from  the  ore,  is  much  softer  than  iron,  is  easily 
cut  or  bent,  and  is  therefore  used  for  roofing,  lining  tanks,  and  for 
water  pipes.  It  is  largely  manufactured  into  shot  ;  and,  mixed  with 
tin  and  antimony,  forms  type-metal.  Large  quantities  of  lead  are 
chemically  treated  in  order  to  obtain  the  white  lead  so  commonly 
used  in  house-painting ;  and  other  forms  of  the  metal  are  also  used 
in  the  arts.  The  pencils  known  as  "lead-pencils"  are  not  made  of 
lea'd,  but  of  quite  another  substance  called  graphite. 

Copper  and  Tin,  being  both  malleable  and  ductile,  are  in  very 
general  use  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Copper  is  remarkable  both 
for  its  ductility  and  tenacity,  and  is  therefore  valuable  for  telegraphic 
and  other  wire,  especially  as  it  is  not  much  affected  by  the  atmos- 
phere. Plates  of  copper  are  used  for  the  bottoms  of  ships,  for  boil- 
ers, engravers'  plates,  and  coins.  The  rust  of  copper  is  green  or 
bluish  in  appearance  and  very  poisonous.  Blue  and  green  colors  are 
obtained  from  copper  and  are  much  used  in  calico-printing. 

Tin  is  extensively  used  in  the  form  of  tin  plates,  which  are  sheets 
of  iron  dipped  in  tin,  and  which  are  made  into  pans,  kettles,  and 
various  household  utensils.  Block  or  ])ig  tin  is  used  in  making 
solder,  type-metal,  and  the  white  metal,  or  Britannia,  which  is  now 
80  often  silver-plated. 

Both  tin  and  copper  were  known  to  the  ancient  nations  of  the 
Mediterranean,  who  even  in  those  early  times  sent  vessels  to  the 
famous  tin  mines  of  Cornwall  in  England,  which  are  still  worked. 

Bronze.  —  Neither  copper  nor  tin  was  found  to  be  hard  enough  for 
weapons  ;  and  the  ancients,  by  uniting  the  two,  made  a  compound  or 
artificial  metal,  which  was  used,  before  iron  was  known,  for  making 
statues,  weapons,  and  ornaments. 

Zinc  resembles  lead  in  appearance,  but  is  harder;  and,  being  but 
slightly  changed  or  rusted  by  moisture,  makes  the  best  lining  for 
tanks,  bath-tubs,  etc. 

Brass. —  Zinc  united  with  copper  forms  the  artificial  metal  known 
as  hraiix,  which  is  more  brilliant  in  color  than  bronze,  and  much  more 
modern. 

Questiona What  is  an  ore  ?     How  is  the  pure  metal  separated  from  the  ore  ? 

Wliat  is  ca-st-iron,  and  for  what  is  it  used  ?  Wliat  is  wrought  iron  ?  What  is  steel  ? 
VVliat  is  said  of  lead  and  its  uses  ?  What  is  white  lead  ?  Of  what  are  the  so-called 
lcad-|)encil5  made  ?  What  are  the  valuable  (jualities  of  copper  ?  For  what  is  copper 
u.,ed  ?  What  is  .said  of  tin  ?  What  is  bronze  ?  What  is  said  of  zinc  ?  What  is 
I:rasH? 


Pevrter  is  a  compound  of  lead  and  tin. 

Alloys. — Various  other  metallic  compounds  are  used  under  the 
name  of  alloys ;  and  many  metals  can  be  better  worked  with  a  slight 
addition  of  some  other  metal,  yet  not  enough  to  change  their  nature. 
Tiie  term  "alloy"  is  often  applied  to  the  added  metal. 

Gold  and  Silver  are  called  the  precious  metals,  because  of  their 
non-corrosive  (jualities,  their  brilliancy,  and  comparative  scarcity, 
and  are  used  chiefly  for  coins,  plate,  and  ornaments.  Each  govern- 
ment has  its  mints,  or  establishments  for  manufacturing  the  metals 
into  such  coins  as  are  in  legal  use.  These  vary  slightly  in  form 
from  one  period  to  another,  and  are  usually  stamped  with  the  name 
or  head  of  the  ruler,  or  with  the  national  arms. 

Gold  is  the  most  malleable  of  all  metals,  and  is  beaten  out  into 
very  thin  sheets,  called  gold-leaf,  for  gilding  purposes.  It  is  seldom 
worked  in  a  pure  state,  and  the  finest  jewelry  has  some  alloy  in 
it.  Gold  and  silver  smiths  require  great  patience  and  delicacy  of 
touch  in  their  work,  and  have  ranked  almost  as  high  in  the  arts  as 
sculptors.  Vases  and  urns  of  beautiful  design,  and  wonderfully 
wrought  jewelry  have  received  especial  admiration  among  all  na- 
tions, and  are  preserved  in  museums,  with  other  treasures. 

The  eager  desire  for  gold  and  silver  has  brought  about  some  of  the 
most  important  discoveries  and  changes  in  the  world's  history.  Por- 
tuguese and  Dutch  traders  made  their  way  around  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  search  of  the  gold  and  precious  stones  of  India.  The  Span- 
iards rushed  into  the  American  wilds  to  look  for  gold.  The  abun- 
dant gold  of  California  caused  our  great  western  country  to  be  peopled 
with  unheard-of  rapidity  ;  and  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia 
converted  a  few  young  settlements  into  large,  flourishing  cities. 

Gold  is  obtained  in  grains  by  washing  the  sands  of  rivers,  and  in 
the  form  of  ore  by  mining ;  and  large  quantities  of  the  quartz  rock 
in  which  it  occurs  are  crushed  by  machinery  to  get  at  the  metal. 

Quicksilver,  or  mercury,  and  platinum,  are  the  most  important 
metals  not  yet  mentioned,  —  both  used  for  chemical  and  manufac- 
turing purposes.  A  glass  plate,  coated  on  the  back  with  a  chemical 
compound  of  mercury  and  tin,  reflects  all  that  is  brought  before  it, 
and  thus  becomes  a  mirror.  Mercury  is  also  used  in  thernrometers, 
because  it  expands  readily  with  heat  and  may  be  subjected  to  a 
great  degree  of  cold  without  freezing. 

Coal,  though  not  a  metal,  is  closely  connected  with  the  mining 
and  working  of  metals,  and  is  so  valuable  in  supplying  fuel  for  fur- 
naces, steam-boilers,  and  household  purposes,  that  coal-mines  are 
among  the  most  important  in  the  world. 

Coal  and  iron  are  usually  found  in  the  same  locality,  and  each  is 
necessary  to  the  other.  Forests  not  only  disappear  with  increase  of 
population,  but  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  mining-regions  of  barren 
plateaux  ;  and  but  for  the  coal,  to  heat  the  furnaces  and  mills,  iron 
could  not  be  worked  there  on  a  large  scale.  On  the  other  hand, 
without  iron  to  make  implements  for  coal-mining,  and  railroads  for 
its  transportation,  vast  beds  of  coal  would  remain  unavailable. 

The  immense  coal-beds  are  the  remains  of  the  luxuriant  vegetation 
of  a  former  period  of  the  earth's  formation,  which,  by  ages  of  heat 
and  by  the  pressure  of  overlying  strata,  has  been  changed  into  this 
hard,  black  mineral.  In  many  places  impressions  of  foliage,  or  of 
trunks  of  trees  are  plainly  seen  in  the  coal. 

There  are  many  qualities  of  coal,  but  the  chief  distinction  is  be- 

Questions.  —  Wliat  is  said  of  pewter  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  alloy  ?  What  is 
.Siiid  of  gold  and  silver  ?  What  are  mints  ?  Wliat  is  said  of  gold  and  silversmiths  ? 
What  residts  have  been  brought  about  by  the  eager  desire  of  men  for  gold  ?  How  is 
gold  obtained  ?  What  is  said  of  ([uicksilver  and  its  uses  ?  Wliy  is  it  used  for  ther- 
mometers ?  What  is  said  of  coal  ?  Why  is  it  important  to  have  coal  and  iron  in 
the  same  locality  ?     How  were  the  coal-beds  formed  ? 


20 


OUR  WORLD. 


twcen  anthracite,  or  luird  coal,  which  burns  with  a  steady  heat  and 
without  blaze, — and  bituminous,  or  soft  coal,  which  splits  into  lay- 
ers, ignites  easily,  and  burns  rapidly,  making  a  flame  and  much 
ashes.  The  inflammable  gas,  which  is  used  now  in  all  civilized 
countries  for  lighting  streets  and  houses,  is  obtained  from  coal.  Oil 
has  also  been  obtained  from  coal,  and  recently  brilliant  colors  have 
been  made  from  coal-tar. 


CLOTH. 

The  art  of  manufacturing  cloth  was  known  at  an  early  period  ;  but 
the  implements  used  were  very  simple,  and  in  this,  as  in  all  other 
branches  of  industry,  great  improvement  has  been  made. 

The  making  of  cloth  consists  of  two  separate  processes,  —  spinning, 
or  the  twisting  of  short  animal  or  vegetable  fibres  into  long  threads  ; 
and  weaving,  or  the  working  of  these  threads  into  a  durable  fabric, 
that  can  be  used  for  clothing,  or  other  purposes. 

Spinning.  —  The  earliest  method  of  spinning  was  very  simple.  A 
bunch  of  carded  fibre  was  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  forked  stick, 
called  a  distaff,  which  was  held  under  the  left  arm  while  the  cotton- 
fibre  or  wool  was  drawn  out,  little  by  little,  twisted  with  the  right 
thumb  and  finger,  and  wound  on  a  smaller  stick  or  spindle.  The  first 
improvement  was  the  invention  of  the  spinning-wheel,  which  wound 
the  thread  on  the  spindle,  as  it  passed  through  the  fingers.  In  those 
days  spinning  was  woman's  work,  and  not  only  the  farmer's  wife  in 
her  cottage,  but  the  stately  dame  in  castle  or  manor-house  was  ex- 
pert in  the  use  of  the  wheel,  and  each  household  spun  its  own  yarn. 
But  hand-wheels  have  gone  out  of  use  within  the  last  thirty  or 
forty  years,  and  are  only  occasionally  seen  in  some  out  of  the  way 
farm-house.  Machinery  was  invented,  which  turned  several  spindles 
at  once ;  and  now,  with  the  use  of  steam-power,  a  great  number  of 
threads  are  spun  with  incredible  rapidity.  Factories  have  taken  up 
the  work  on  a  large  scale,  and  instead  of  the  modest  hum  of  the 
spinning-wheel  in  each  home,  immense  mills  are  going  daj'  and  night ; 
hundreds  of  men,  women,  and  children  are  employed  in  one  estab- 
lishment ;  gigantic  wheels,  and  smaller  wheels  within  wheels,  whirl 
with  tremendous  speed  and  deafening  clatter ;  and  as  many  threads 
are  drawn  out,  twisted,  and  wound  in  a  moment,  as  were  formerly 
made  in  a  week. 

Weaving.  —  The  first  looms  were  as  simple  as  the  distaff  and 
spindle.  A  rude  frame  was  attached  to  the  boughs  of  a  tree,  at  a 
convenient  height,  with  threads  placed  closely  across  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  weaver,  stepping  slowly  from  side  to  side,  interwove 
the  cross-thread  back  and  forth,  rolling  the  cloth  over  when  one 
length  of  the  frame  was  finished.  Cloth  ttius  made  was  narrow,  and 
in  comparatively  short  pieces,  such  as  is  still  made  by  the  uncivilized 
African  tribes.  Later,  looms  were  made  portable  and  larger,  and 
were  moved  by  the  foot,  the  hand  guiding  the  thread.  For  a  long 
time  each  family  did  its  own  weaving  ;  but,  at  length,  skilful  weavers 
began  to  collect  in  the  cities,  employed  workmen,  and  kept  many 
looms  going.  Of  late  years  machinery  has  been  used  for  weaving, 
as  for  spiiming ;  —  hundreds  of  yards  of  cloth  roll  off  in  a  day,  and 
can  be  sold  cheap  enough  to  be  within  reach  of  all  classes. 

Questions.  —  \Vhat  is  anthracite  coal?  Bituminous  coal  ?  For  what  other  pur- 
poses Ijeside  fuel  is  coal  used  ?  What  is  said  of  the  manufacture  of  cloth  ?  What 
two  piocesses  are  included  in  cloth -making  ?  Describe  the  earliest  method  of  spin- 
ning. What  was  a  distaff  ?  A  spindle  ?  What  improvement  followed  the  dis- 
taff? What  is  said  of  the  spinning  of  former  days?  What  of  the  .spinning  of  the 
present  time  ?  Describe  the  former  process  of  weaving.  What  improvements  were 
made  ? 


The  fibres  commonly  used  for  spinning  and  weaving  are  cotton, 
flax,  the  wool  or  hair  of  various  kinds  of  sheep  and  goats,  and  the 
fine  thread  spun  by  the  silk-worm.  By  variations  of  fine  and  coarse 
threads,  by  uniting  the  different  kinds  of  fibre  in  various  proportions, 
and  by  the  use  of  many  colored  dyes,  the  number  of  different  fabrics 
has  become  countless,  and  every  season  some  new  combination  ap- 
pears. 

Colors  are  applied  either  by  dyeing  the  threads  before  they  are 
woven,  or  by  stamping  them  upon  the  cloth  after  it  is  made.  In  the 
first  case  the  different  colors  are  woven  in  regularly,  in  stripes  or 
checks,  and  are  much  alike  on  both  sides.  In  the  latter  they  are 
printed  upon  the  surface,  in  flowers,  vines,  and  a  variety  of  other 
designs. 

The  printing  of  calico,  muslin,  and  delaine  has  become  a  great  art 
of  itself,  and  is  carried  on  in  special  establishments.  Thousands  of 
persons  are  employed  in  making  the  necessary  designs  ;  dyes  are 
collected  from  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  and  the  setting  of  colors,  and 
the  combination  of  tints  have  become  a  scientific  study. 

What  shall  be  the  commonest  and  cheapest  manufacture  of  a  coun- 
try depends  much  on  its  climate  and  productions.  In  America, 
where  cotton  is  abundantly  produced,  cotton-cloth  is  chiefly  woven.  | 
In  Europe,  where  no  cotton  grows,  flax  is  everywhere  cultivated, 
and  manufactured  into  linen.  In  some  countries  of  Asia  silk  is  in 
common  use  ;  and  woollens  are  worn  in  all  temperate  and  cold  cli- 
mates. 

Cotton,  the  most  extensively  used  of  all  fabrics,  was  first  manu- 
factured in  India,  and  was  introduced  westward  with  the  course  of 
civilization  ;  and  now  the  cotton  produced  in  the  southern  States  of 
North  America  supplies  the  manufacturing  cities  of  the  United 
States  and  of  Europe.  The  first  mills  in  this  country  with  machinery 
for  spinning  and  weaving  cotton  were  established  at  Pawtucket  and 
Lowell  about  fifty  years  ago.  White  cottons,  calicoes,  and  ginghams, 
are  now  largely  manufactured  here,  but  the  finest  cambrics  and  mus- 
lins are  still  imported  from  Europe. 

Wool  is  next  in  importance  to  cotton.  In  various  parts  of  the 
world  multitudes  of  people  are  employed  in  raising  sheep  ;  and  rail- 
roads and  ships  carry  vast  quantities  of  wool  to  the  great  cities,  to 
be  made  into  carpets,  blankets,  broadcloths,  dress-goods,  and  other 
woollen  fabrics. 

Wool  is  valuable  in  proportion  as  it  is  fine,  soft,  clean,  and  elastic  ; 
and  these  qualities  depend  on  the  kind  of  sheep  or  goat,  and  also  on 
the  climate,  soil,  food,  and  shelter,  —  the  wool  of  the  same  kind  of 
sheep  being  greatly  improved  by  care.  The  different  qualities  of 
wool  are  used  for  different  purposes,  and  are  constantly  imported  into 
one  country  from  another.  Germany  is  noted  for  its  fine  wools  and 
cloths.  England  manufactures  native  wool,  and  receives  large  sup- 
plies from  her  colonies  of  South  Africa  and  Australia  ;  but  imports 
German  wool  for  fine  broacicloths.  Merino  wool  is  obtained  from  the 
merino  sheep  of  Spain,  —  but  the  finest  merino  cloths  are  made  in 
France.  Of  late  years  the  lama  wool,  and  the  fine,  long,  lustrous 
wool  of  the  alpaca  goat  have  been  imported  from  South  America ; 
and  attempts  are  now  making  to  introduce  the  alpaca  goat  into 
Australia  and  other  grazing  countries.  The  most  costly  of  all  wools 
is  the  soft,  silky  hair  of  the  Thibetian  goat,  of  which  the  Cashmere 
shawls  are  made. 

Flax  is  mostly   cultivatf  d   in   the   European  countries.    Ireland, 

Questions.  —  What  libres  are  commonly  used  for  weaving  cloth  ?  How  are  so 
many  ditfcient  falnics  produced  ?  How  is  cloth  colored  ?  Where  is  cotton  most  used  ? 
Flax  ?  Silk  ?  Wool  ?  What  is  said  of  cotton  ?  AVhat  of  wool  ?  How  does  the  value 
of  wool  vary  ?  What  is  said  of  German  wool  ?  Of  merino  wool  ?  Of  lama  and  al- 
paca wools  ?    Of  Thibetian  wool  ?    Where  is  flax  mostly  produced  and  manufactured  ? 


MANUFACTURES. 


21 


Germany,  and  Holland  excel  in  the  manufacture  of  linens,  and  supply 
our  markets. 

Silk  is  the  fine  thread  spun  by  a  species  of  caterpillar,  commonly 
called  silk-worm,  to  enclose  its  chrysalis ;  and  silk-making  includes 
the  culture  of  the  mulberry-tree,  upon  which  the  silk-worm  lives,  the 
rearing  of  the  caterpillars,  the  reeling  of  the  thread  from  the  cocoon, 
and  the  weaving  of  the  silk. 


':*• 


Caterpillars,  Chrysalis,  Cocoon,  and  Moths. 

The  young  worms  are  fed  with  tender  mulberry  leaves,  cut  up  in 
small  bits.  After  several  days  they  are  able  to  feed  themselves,  and, 
growing  rapidly,  soon  attain  their  full  size  as  caterpillars,  and  begin 
to  spin.  They  cease  to  eat,  and  gradually  wind  their  own  silk  about 
them,  until  each  one  lies  motionless  within  a  white  or  pale  yellow 
cocoon,  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  awaiting  its  birth  as  a 
moth.  In  this  state  the  silk  is  ready  for  spinning,  and  is  carefully 
wound  off  the  cocoon.  The  chrysalids  within  the  large  number  of 
cocoons  intended  for  silk  are  destroyed  by  heat,  before  the  time  for 
the  moth  to  appear,  because  the  bursting  of  the  cocoon  spoils  the 
thread.  Some  cocoons  are  always  preserved  for  propagation,  and  in 
due  time  the  moths  come  forth,  live  their  short  lives  and  die,  after 
depositing  eggs  to  produce  the  next  generation  of  insects. 

Silk  was  originally  made  by  the  Chinese,  who  jealously  kept  secret 
the  mode  of  rearing  the  worms,  and  supplied  the  Asiatic  cities  with 
manufactured,  or  raw  silk.  By  degrees  other  eastern  nations  learned 
the  art  of  manufacturing,  but  it  was  not  until  the  twelfth  century 
that  two  monks  secretly  obtained  from  China  a  few  cocoons  and 
some  knowledge  of  rearing  the  worms,  and  carried  their  treasure  to 

Questions.  —  What  is  silk  ?  How  are  the  silk-worms  reared  ?  How  is  the  cocoon 
made  ?  What  becomes  of  the  cocoons  ?  Give  the  history  of  the  manufacture  of 
silk. 


Greece.     The  peninsula  which  had  been  known  as  the  Peloponnesus 
was  afterward  called  the  Morea,  from  morus,  or  mulberry-tree. 

Italy  now  manufactures  a  great  deal  of  silk,  but  has  no  establish- 
ments as  famous  as  those  of  France.  Eecently  good  silks  have  been 
manufactured  in  our  own  country. 

PAPER. 

The  fibres  of  cotton,  wool,  and  flax  have  not  fulfilled  their  mission 
in  the  world  with  the  wearing  out  of  the  innumerable  garments  made 
from  them,  but  reappear  in  a  new  and  scarcely  less  important  form. 

Rags  are  not  only  collected  from  house  to  house  through  every 
street,  but  are  rescued  from  dust-heaps  and  gutters,  —  and,  among  the 
importations  from  foreign  lands,  are  unshipped  daily  on  our  wharves 
great  bags  or  crates  of  rags,  direct  from  the  beggars  of  Italy  and 
Turkey.  These  rags  are  collected  in  immense  buildings,  where  they 
are  carefully  washed  and  sorted  into  parcels,  according  to  quality. 
Amidst  the  whirl  of  machinery,  in  an  atmosphere  of  acid  and  gas, 
they  are  then  soaked,  pounded,  bleached,  and  dissolved  into  a  pulp, 
or  paste.  This  pulpy  mass  is  rolled  and  pressed  into  paper  of  every 
kind  and  degree,  from  the  smoothest  letter-paper  to  brown  wrapping- 
paper,  so  coarse  that  it  is  specked  with  bits  of  the  original  cloth,  not 
properly  decomposed.  An  incredible  quantity  of  rags  is  consumed 
by  these  mills,  and  street  rag-picking  has  become  a  regidarly  organ- 
ized business  in  the  larger  cities,  supporting  quite  a  number  of  peo- 
ple-. Yet  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  enough  for  the  making  of  books, 
newspapers,  writing-paper,  wrapping-paper,  wall-paper,  and  paper- 
boxes  ;  and  straw,  bark,  and  wood  fibres  are  sometimes  used  as  a 
substitute. 

The  art  of  making  paper  is  comparatively  modern ;  and  this,  together 
with  the  invention  of  the  printing  press,  caused  a  great  advance  in 
civilization.  Ancient  nations,  whose  books  were  written  by  hand, 
used  pieces  of  linen,  thin  strips  of  bark,  parchment  or  dried  kid-skins, 
and  also  the  bark  of  the  papyrus,  a  reed  growing  in  tropical  countries. 

LEATHER. 

Leather-making  is  another  branch  of  manufactures,  that  gives  em- 
ployment to  a  great  number  of  people. 

One  of  the  earliest  discoveries  of  savage  life  was  the  art  of  dress- 
ing skins  ;  and,  to  this  day,  nothing  has  been  found  so  strong,  flexible, 
and  durable  as  leather,  for  shoes,  gloves,  book-binding,  harness  and 
carriage-making,  bands  for  machinery,  trunks,  bags,  etc. 

The  bark  of  the  oak  and  some  other  plants  contains  a  strong  astrin- 
gent, called  tannin,  which  unites  chemically  with  the  gelatine  in  the 
skins  of  animals,  forming  firm,  compact  leather. 

Tanning.  —  When  the  hair  has  been  removed  from  the  skins,  they 
are  laid  for  days  or  even  months,  in  large  vats,  between  layers  of 
crushed  oak  or  hemlock  bark,  and  are  thus  tanned.  Or,  by  a  more 
recent  process,  the  tannin  is  extracted  from  the  bark  and  applied  to 
the  skins  in  a  liquid  form. 

After  the  tanning  process,  the  leather  is  dressed  and  dyed  accord- 
ing to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  The  skins  of  cattle  are 
most  frequently  tanned  ;  but  goat,  deer,  kid,  and  even  horse-skins 
are  also  used  for  making  various  qualities  of  leather,  —  calf-skin  for 
boots  and  binding  books  ;  goat-skin  or  morocco  for  bags,  carriage- 
cushions  and  curtains  ;  and  kid-skins  for  shoes  and  gloves. 

Questions.  —  Of  what  is  paper  made  ?  How  are  the  rags  prepared  ?  What  other 
substances  are  used  for  making  paper  ?  What  took  the  place  of  paper  in  early  times  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  manufactui-e  of  leather  ?  What  is  tannin  ?  How  are  skins  tanned  ? 
What  different  kinds  of  skins  are  used  for  making  leather  ? 


22 


OUR  WORLD. 


POTTERY. 

The  use  of  potter;/  is  as  old  as  the  history  of  mankind,  and  under 
this  name  may  be  included  earthenware,  china  or  porcelain,  and 
bricks  and  tiles. 

Earthen\7are.  —  All  savage  tribes  have  fashioned  for  themselves 
vessels  of  clay,  and  improvements  were  early  made  in  forming, 
coloring,  and  ornamenting  them.  Even  in  ancient  times  pottery 
was  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  as  an  art,  and  vases 
of  rare  grace  and  beauty  have  been  discovered  among  the  ruins  of 
cities  many  thousand  years  old.  Etruscan  vases,  now  preserved  in 
art-galleries,  are  of  a  black  and  red  ware,  made  by  an  ancient  people 
of  Italy,  before  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire. 

The  first  pottery  was  a  rough,  porous  earthenware,  rudely  fash- 
ioned from  the  clay,  and  sun-dried. 

By  mixing  crushed  flint,  sand,  or  similar  substances  with  the  clay, 
and  by  baking  in  ovens  instead  of  drying  in  the  sun,  harder  kinds  of 
ware  were  produced,  and  the  surface  was  glazed.  Finally,  a  light 
clay  was  discovered,  which,  together  with  felspar  and  silex  or  sand, 
made  the  fine,  semi-transparent  china  or  porcelain.  This  white  clay 
or  kaolin,  though  first  found  and  used  in  China,  has  since  been  dis- 
covered in  some  other  countries  ;  and,  among  the  many  establish- 
ments for  making  china,  the  most  famous  are  near  Dresden  and  at 
Sevres  near  Paris,  where  the  most  beautiful  and  delicate  porcelain 
is  manufactured. 

Earthenware  is  brown,  light  yellow,  bluish,  or  reddish,  accordi-ng 
to  the  color  of  the  clay,  but  brilliant  colors  are  painted  on  china,  while 
the  paste  is  yet  soft,  and  baked  in.  The  colors  commonly  used  are 
obtained  from  copper,  cobalt,  and  other  metals. 

All  the  varieties  of  pottery,  —  common  red  earthenware,  stone  jugs 
and  jars,  delft  ware,  Wedgwood  ware,  majolica,  and  many  qualities 
of  china  and  porcelain  only  differ  in  the  proportion  of  hard  material 
added  to  the  clay,  in  the  style  of  coloring,  and  the  manner  of  baking. 

By  omitting  the  clay,  and  combining  the  other  substances  with  a 
fine,  white  sand,  the  perfectly  transparent  glass  is  obtained,  wliich  is 
so  extensively  used  for  windows,  table  ware,  and  bottles  of  every 
description. 

Bricks  and  Tiles.  —  Every  partly  civilized  nation  has  made 
bricks  of  clay,  whicli  are  either  sun-dried,  as  in  some  countries  of 
the  East,  or  kiln-dried,  as  in  our  own  country. 

Tiles  of  a  red  earthenware  are  used  in  many  countries  instead  of 
shingles  or  slates  for  roofing  houses  ;  and  small  ornamented  tiles  of 
porcelain  have  been  used  around  fire-places,  and  for  other  parts  of 
buildings,  especially  in  Holland. 

TRADE  AND   COMMERCE. 

Nothing  has  tended  more  to  advance  the  civilization  of  the  world 
than  the  natural  desire  of  men  to  exchange  their  possessions,  and  to 
acquire  wealth.  Since  the  first  savages  bartered  fish  for  skins,  or 
sheep  for  grain,  the  facilities  for  buying  and  selling  have  continually 
increased,  until  now  merchants  devote  themselves  to  collecting  the 
produce  of  distant  countries,  farmers  seek  markets  for  their  produce, 
and  manufacturers  buy  raw  materials  to  make  into  cloth,  tools, 
and  the  various  articles  in  daily  use.     Vessels  now  cross  the  seas  in 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  pottery  ?  W^it^^is  Etruscan  ware  ?  What  was  the 
first  lottery  ?  What  improvements  were  made  ?  Of  \^at  is  china  made  ?  Why 
called  cliina  ?  Where  is  the  finest  porcelain  made  in  Europe  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
color  of  earthenware  ?  How  are  different  varieties  of  pottery  produced  ?  How  is  glass 
made  ?  What  is  said  of  hricks  ?  Of  tiles  ?  What  has  aided  in  the  civilization  of 
the  world  ?     How  has  trade  advanced  from  the  simple  bartering  of  savages  ? 


every  direction  ;  roads  extend  across  continents,  from  shore  to  shore  ; 
rivers  are  spanned  by  bridges ;  mountains  bored  by  tunnels  ;  and  there 
is  a  vast  system  of  trade,  a  bringing  and  carrying,  buying  and  sell- 
ing, throughout  the  whole  world. 

The  value  of  the  produce  of  a  region  depends  in  a  great  measure 
upon  its  facilities  for  transportation.  Large  crops  on  the  fertile  fields 
of  some  tiiinly-peoplod  district,  not  crossed  by  any  railroad,  will 
scarcely  repay  the  small  cost  of  cultivation,  because  they  cannot  be 
easily  carried  to  the  market  of  some  distant  city.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  barren  and  unpromising  spot  may  be  suddenly  transformed  into  a 
populous,  thriving  town,  by  the  opening  of  a  road  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  the  iron  or  copper  that  lies  buried  in  its  rocks. 

It  was  in  very  early  times  found  inconvenient  always  to  barter, 
and  some  kind  of  money  was  needed  to  exchange  for  merchandise. 
Though  gold  and  silver  are  now  commonly  used  for  this  purpose,  any- 
thing may  serve  as  money  that  is  understood  to  have  a  fixed  valiie. 
At  one  time  the  ancient  Greeks  used  iron-money,  that  the  weight 
might  discourage  stealing.  The  tribes  of  Central  Africa  use  a  small 
shell,  and  sometimes,  as  in  our  own  country,  paper-currency  is  in  cir- 
culation, each  bill  being  stamped  legally  with  a  fixed  value.  Each 
country  has  its  peculiar  coins  or  currency  established  by  law,  and 
the  money  of  one  country  will  not  usually  pass  in  another.  Our 
paper-dollars,  for  instance,  would  not  be  used  in  London,  nor  the 
French  franc  nor  sou  in  a  Boston  store.  But  there  are  buyers  and 
sellers  of  money,  as  of  everything  else,  and  in  every  city  are  money- 
brokers,  as  they  are  called,  ready,  for  a  small  profit,  to  exchange  one 
kind  of  money  for  another. 

Money  not  made  or  stamped  legally  is  called  counterfeit,  and  the 
use  of  it  is  punished  as  a  crime. 

Facilities  for  Intercourse.  — As  we  look  back  upon  the  history 
of  the  world,  we  see  how  closely  the  advancement  of  civilization  has 
followed  the  extension  of  trade  and  commerce,  and  how  much  tli?s 
extension  has  depended  upon  increasing  facilities  for  cheap  and  rapid 
transportation. 

Among  other  pictures  of  the  past  we  can  sec,  winding  over  the 
rough  road  leading  to  any  old  European  city,  the  line  of  pack-horses  or 
mules,  bearing  loads  of  costly  merchandise,  and  accompanied  by  the 
anxious  merchant,  who,  in  those  lawless  times,  was  doubtful  whether 
he  should  escape  the  misfortune  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  some  un- 
scrupulous baron,  whose  territory  he  might  be  crossing,  and  forced 
to  pay  a  heavy  ransom.  Or  we  may  see  the  country  gentleman, 
on  horseback  and  with  leather  saddle-bags,  slowly  trotting  through 
his  journey  of  fifty  miles  or  more,  to  pay  his  yearly  visit  to  the 
capital. 

A  little  later,  clumsy  vehicles  rolled  over  the  country  roads  ;  farm- 
ers laboriously  drove  their  wagon-loads  of  produce  to  distant  markets, 
and  "  carriers,"  the  expressmen  of  those  days,  made  weekly  or  month- 
ly expeditions,  with  their  carts,  to  the  nearest  town,  charged  with 
commissions  for  the  wliole  neigliborliood.  Between  places  of  suffi- 
cient importance  regular  lines  of  stage-coaches  jolted  over  the  bad 
roads,  changing  horses  frequently  at  the  wayside  inn,  which  was  a 
necessary  institution  then,  for  travellers  must  dine  or  sleep  in  making 
a  journey  of  less  than  a  hundred  miles. 

Transportation  by  water  may  be  traced  back  to  equally  primitive 
oeginnings.     Dimly  in  the  remote  ages  we  see  the  half-naked  savage 

Questions.  —  Upon  what  does  the  value  of  produce  depend  ?  Will  fertile  fields 
always  make  a  rich  farmer  ?  How  is  the  whole  appearance  of  a  region  often  changed  ? 
What  is  used  for  money  ?  What  is  necessary  to  make  any  coin  or  paper-money  legal 
currency  ?  What  are  brokers  ?  Upon  what  has  the  extension  of  trade  and  commerce 
oTcatly  depended  ?  What  is  said  of  early  modes  of  land  transportation  and  travel  ? 
What  of  early  transportation  by  water  ? 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


23 


paddling  his  canoe,  or  guiding  his  raft  with  a  pole  ;  and  a  little  later 
the  Mediterranean  is  covered  with  the  Greek  and  Roman  galleys, 
rowed  by  two  tiers  of  oarsmen.  Soon  white  sails  dotted  the  waters, 
for  it  was  found  that,  when  spread  to  the  wind,  they  would  carry  the 
vessel  on  its  course.  And  at  last,  the  invention  of  the  mariner's 
compass  enabled  the  sailor  to  guide  his  bark  across  the  trackless 
ocean,  and  discover  continents  before  unknown. 

For  a  long  period  fbrther  facilities  for  land  or  water  communication 
were  gained  chiefly  by  improving  the  roads,  making  lighter  and  more 
comfortable  vehicles,  increasing  the  size  and  strength  of  vessels,  and 
-o  arranging  their  sails  as  to  take  advantage  of  winds  not  blowing  in 
iactly  the  right  direction.  But  how  tedious  and  insufficient  seem 
all  other  modes  of  transportation  now  that  the  discovery  and  appli- 
cation of  steam-power  has  sent  boats  rushing  up  and  down  our  rivers 
and  lakes  ;  carried  immense  ships  across  the  Atlantic,  in  ten  days,  in 
spite  of  adverse  winds  and  currents  ;  and  covered  all  civilized  lauds 
with  a  network  of  railroads.  Indeed,  a  voyage  round  the  world  may 
now  be  made  in  the  time  that  the  Mayflower  struggled  with  the  waves 

QaestiooB.  —  What  important   invention  extended  navigation  ?    What  further 
facilities  were  gained  ?    What  results  followed  the  application  of  steam-power  ?    What 


of  the  Atlantic,  before  landing  the  Pilgrims  upon  the  New  England 
coast. 

Thus  the  conditions  of  successful: commerce  are  obtained  ;  materials 
of  great  bulk  and  weight  are  transported  at  reasonable  cost ;  coal, 
iron,  and  cotton  are  brought  to  the  manufacturing  centres  ;  marble, 
and  other  stones,  from  the  distant  quarries,  to  build  and  adorn  our 
great  cities ;  sugar,  molasses,  and  grains  are  carried  across  oceans 
to  supply  large  populations ;  and  even  the  perishable  fruits  of  one 
region  are  so  rapidly  transported  to  another  as  to  become  a  source  of 
large  income. 

Moreover,  the  electric  telegraph,  vrith  its  marvellous  power  of  trans- 
mitting intelligence  almost  instantaneously,  is  another  great  facility  ; 
keeping  the  merchants  informed  of  the  state  of  foreign  markets,  and 
of  the  various  political  changes  that  affect  the  interests  of  trade.  It 
is  also  probable  that  the  impulse  it  has  given  to  the  comparison  of 
weather  records,  in  different  localities,  may  lead  to  tke  discovery  of 
laws  regulating-temperature,  winds,  progress  of  storms,  etc.,  a  knowl- 
edge of  which  would  be  invaluable  to  the  navigator. 

is  said  of  the  present  conditions  of  trade  and  commerce  i  What  of  the  electric 
telegraph  ? 


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GENERAL  REVIEW  QUESTIONS  FOR  PART   I. 


What  did  the  ancient  nations  know  of  Geography  ?  What  was  the  progress  of  geo- 
graphical knowledge  ?  What  does  geography  include  ?  Repeat  the  definitions  given 
of  lines  and  angles.  Of  the  sphere,  ciicle,  and  parts  of  a  ciicle.  What  four  facts 
affect  the  vegetable  and  animal  life  of  the  earth  ?  What  imaginaiy  circles  are  used 
for  convenient  reference  ? 

LIGHT. 

How  is  the  earth  lighted  by  the  sun  ?  How  do  we  determine  direction  ?  Will  a 
man  who  has  travelled  from  Chicago  to  San  Francisco  find  his  watch  fast  or  slow  ? 
How  nmch,  and  why  ?  What  is  longitude  ?  What  is  the  position  of  the  earth's  axis  ? 
Why  are  our  days  longer  than  our  nights  during  the  summer  ?  When  are  the  days 
and  nights  of  eipial  length  all  over  the  earth  ?  What  parts  of  the  earth  have  for  a 
time  continuous  day,  and  at  anotlier  season  continuous  night  ?  Draw  the  figures  and 
explain  the  variation  in  the  length  of  days  and  nights. 

HEAT. 

Upon  what  does  the  heating  of  the  earth's  surface  depend  ?  What  part  of  the  earth 
is  always  hottest  ?  What  parts  of  the  earth  are  always  cold  ?  What  causes  the 
changes  of  seasons  ?  Draw  the  figures  and  explain  fully.  What  are  the  limits  of  the 
torrid  zone  ?    What  are  the  limits  of  the  temperate  zones  ?    Where  are  the  frigid  zones  1 

ATMOSPHERE. 

Of  what  is  air  comjKJsed  ?  What  causes  wind  1  What  are  the  trade-winds  ?  What 
is  the  zone  of  calms,  and  where  ?  What  are  the  return-trades  ?  How  are  periodical 
winds  caused  ?  How  are  sea  and  land-breezes  caused  ?  What  causes  rain  ?  Snow  ? 
Hail  1    What  causes  dew  ?    Fog  ? 

CLIMATE. 

What  two  general  laws  for  the  variation  of  temperature  ?  What  is  latitude  ?  De- 
scribe the  torrid  zone.  The  temperate  zones.  The  frigid  zones.  What  are  isothermal 
lines  ?    Why  do  they  not  correspond  with  parallels  of  latitude  ? 

CRUST   OP   THE   EARTH. 

What  observations  have  been  made  on  clifl's  and  mountain  sides  ?  What  discoveries 
by  mining  and  quarrying  ?  What  further  inquiries  and  investigations  ?  Describe  the 
supposed  formation  of  the  earth. 

THE   OCEAN. 

How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  is  water  ?  What  are  the  names  and  limits  of  the 
five  oceans  ?  What  are  waves  ?  What  are  the  causes  of  currents  ?  What  is  the  Gulf 
Stream  ?  What  is  the  Sargas.so  Sea  ?  How  are  tides  caused  ?  Describe  the  three 
classes  of  islands.     Give  an  example  of  each  class.     What  is  the  bottom  of  the  sea  ? 

THE  LAND. 

What  are  the  grand  divisions  of  land  ?  Is  there  more  land  north  or  south  of  the 
equator  ?  What  is  a  mountain-system  1  How  were  mountains  fonned  ?  Wliat  are 
volcanoes  ?  Mention  the  different  kinds  of  plains.  How  are  rivers  formed  ?  Describ:- 
the  formation  of  a  glacier.     What  is  a  water-shed  ?    Mention  one.     What  is  the  bed 


of  a  river  ?     Its  basin  ?    A  delta  ?    What  is  a  river-system  ?    Mention  the  uses  of 
rivers  I    What  are  mineral-springs  ?     What  are  lakes  ? 

r 

PLANTS. 

Where  is  vegetation  most  luxuriant  ?  What  are  deciduous-leaved  trees  ?  Ever- 
greens ?  Shrubs  ?  Vines  ?  Give  an  example  of  each.  Where  are  palms  found  ? 
Mention  some  of  the  most  useful  species.  What  are  spores  ?  Describe  ferns.  Mosses. 
Lichens.  What  are  fungi  ?  Alga;  ?  Has  the  vegetation  of  the  earth  always  been  as 
varied  as  now  ?  Why  do  difl'erent  parts  of  the  earth  have  different  forms  of  vegeta- 
tion ?  What  is  meant  by  the  flora  of  a  country  ?  What  are  the  characteristic  jilants 
of  the  tropical  flora  ?  What  ett'ect  has  the  climate  of  the  temperate  zones  upon  vegeta- 
tion ?  What  plants  are  characteristic  of  these  zones  ?  What  is  the  vegetation  of  the 
frigid  zones  ?  What  changes  of  vegetation  are  observed  in  ascending  high  mountains  ? 
What  is  the  flora  of  the  ocean  ?  What  are  the  principal  food-plants  ?  What  are  those 
used  for  clothing  ?  For  beverages  ?  For  extracting  oil  ?  W^hat  are  some  of  the  useful 
gums  ?  Mention  some  of  the  most  common  vegetable  dye-stuffs.  What  parts  of  plants 
furni.sh  spices  ?  Give  examples.  Describe  some  of  the  useful  barks.  For  what  pur- 
poses is  the  hard  wood  of  trees  used  ?    What  is  bamboo,  and  how  used  ? 

ANIMALS. 

Where  is  animal-life  most  varied  and  abundant  ?  What  are  the  characteristic  ani- 
mals of  the  torrid  zone  ?  Of  the  temperate  zones  ?  Of  the  frigid  zones  ?  Is  animal  or 
plant-life  more  abundant  in  the  frigid  zones  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  fauna  of  a  coun- 
try ?  Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  animals.  What  are  the  four  great  divisions  of 
animals  ?  What  are  quadrupeds  ?  Ruminants  ?  Rodents  ?  Carnivorous  animals  ? 
Marsupials  ? 

INHABITANTS   OP  THE  EARTH. 

Describe  the  progress  of  civilization  in  the  world.  Wliat  natural  conditions  are 
unfavorable  for  its  progress  ?  Into  what  races  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  divided  ? 
Describe  each.  Wliat  are  the  prevailing  religions  of  the  world  ?  What  are  the  two 
distinct  fonns  of  government  ? 

OCCUPATIONS. 

Wliy  did  men  apply  themselves  to  different  occupations  ?  What  place  does  fishing 
hold  as  an  occupation  ?  What  are  the  important  fisheries  ?  What  progress  has  been 
made  in  agriculture,  and  how  ?  Why  are  metals,  and  workers  in  metals,  important  to 
the  progress  of  civilization  ?  Mention  the  difl'erent  qualities  of  metals.  How  are  iron, 
lead,  and  other  metals  found  ?  How  obtained  and  i)repared  for  use  ?  What  different 
qualities  of  iron  are  used,  and  for  what  purposes  '  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  lead  ? 
What  are  the  properties  and  uses  of  copper  and  tin  ?  What  is  bronze  ?  Zinc  ?  Brass  ? 
Pewter  ?  What  are  alloys  ?  AVhat  are  the  proiierties  and  uses  of  gold  and  silver  ? 
What  results  have  come  from  the  eager  search  for  gold  ?  To  what  uses  is  mercury 
applied  ?  What  is  coal,  and  what  are  its  uses  ?  What  are  the  two  processes  in  making 
cloth  ?  What  improvements  have  been  made  in  them  ?  How  are  woven  fabrics 
colored  ?  Where  was  cotton  first  manufactured  ?  Wfiere  is  it  chiefly  manufactured 
now  ?  Upon  what  does  the  value  of  wool  depend  ?  What  are  the  different  kinds  of 
wool  ?  What  is  silk  ?  By  whom  was  silk  first  manufactured  ?  How  is  pajwr  made  ? 
For  what  is  leather  used  ?  Wluit  is  Umnin  ?  How  is  leather  made  ?  AVliat  is  the 
history  of  pottery  ?  What  are  the  varieties,  and  how  do  they  differ  ?  What  was  the 
earliest  mode  of  trading  ?  Wliat  are  some  of  the  results  of  trade  and  commerce  ?  Wliat 
is  money,  and  why  used  ?    Describe  the  progress  in  facilities  for  intercourse. 


PART  II. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

THE  climate,  productions,  and  central  position  of  the  region 
around  the  Mediterranean  'Sea  were  favorable  for  the  first  ad- 
vances in  civilization.  This  great  sea,  with  its  numerous  gulfs  and 
bays,  aflforded  facilities  for  intercourse  without  being  too  formidable 
for  the  first  sailors,  with  their  rude  vessels  and  slight  knowledge  of 
navigation.  Along  its  shores,  therefore,  grew  up  some  of  the  most 
ancient  nations,  of  which  we  have  any  historical  knowledge  ;  and 
from  thence  learning  and  art  have  spread  throughout  the  world. 

Egyptians.  —  Thousands  of  years  ago  the  Egyptians  were  already 
learned  in  astronomy,  geometry,  medicine,  and  other  sciences  ;  wore 
garments  of  fine  linen  and  woollen ;  made  ornaments  of  gold  and 
silver;  carved  upon  stone  or  painted,  in  colors  that  have  lasted 
through  ages,  representations  of  their  victories  in  war,  their  chariots 
and  arms,  their  various  occupations,  and  their  implements.  They 
built  substantial  palaces,  temples,  and  tombs  for  their  kings ;  they 
(?tected  those  immense  pyramids  so  old  that  nobody  knows  when 
or  by  whom  they  were  made,  yet  so  well-built  that  they  have  stood 
through  many  centuries,  and  it  is  still  the  wonder  of  the  world  how 
the  massive  stones  were  lifted  into  place.  It  was  part  of  their 
religion  to  worship  their  ancestors ;  and  one  of  their  most  singular 
customs  was  that  of  embalming  their  dead  in  costly  oils  and  spices, 
and  wrapping  them  in  many  yards  of  linen.  These  embalmed  bodies, 
or  mummies,  have  often  been  found,  and,  together  with  pictures  and 
inscriptions  carved  upon  blocks  of  stone,  they  tell  us  something  of 
daily  life  in  the  old  cities  of  Thebes  and  Memphis,  whose  ruins  have 
now  been  visited,  studied,  and  explained  for  many  years,  while 
another  people  and  other  customs  have  existed  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile. 

Phoenicians.  —  The  Phoenicians,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, were  the  traders  of  the  olden  time.  Their  vessels  filled 
the  "  Great  Sea,"  as  it  was  then  callefl,  and  even  sailed  beyond  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar.  They  were  renowned  for  their  wealth  ;  and,  be- 
side founding  the  great  city  of  Tyre  on  their  own  coast,  they  estab- 
lished colonies  on  the  African  shore,  where  they  built  the  famous 
city  of  Carthage.  The  Phoenicians  wove  fine  cloth  and  made  a  rich 
dye  from  a  shell-fish  found  along  their  coast,  which  became  cele- 
brated as  the  Tyrian  purple,  and  was  used  for  the  garments  of  kings 
and  nobles. 

Babylon.  —  Farther  eastward  were  the  Assyrians,  Medes,  and 
Persians,  and  on  the  plain  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  stood  the 
famous  city  of  Babylon.  Situated  on  the  highway  of  trafiic  with 
India,  it  was  the  resort  of  travellers,  merchants,  and  idlers,  receiving 
vices  as  well  as  costly  merchandise,  and  was  notorious  alike  for  its 
wealth  and  depravity. 

Questions.  —  What  part  of  the  world  was  most  favorable  for  the  first  progress 
of  civilization  ?  What  were  the  advantages  of  this  region  ?  What  is  said  •(  the 
Egyptians  ?  What  are  mummies  ?  How  have  we  learned  anything  of  daily  life  in 
ancient  Egypt  ?  Where  did  the  Phoenicians  live  ?  For  what  were  they  famous  ?  What 
was  the  Tyrian  purple  ?  Where  was  Tyre  ?  Where  was  the  city  of  Babylon  ?  What 
is  said  of  it  ? 


India.  —  For  a  long  time,  India  was  the  eastern  limit  of  the 
known  world ;  and  Alexander,  the  Macedonian  conqueror,  when  he 
had  marched  his  armies  as  far  as  the  Indies,  lamented  that  he  had 
conquered  all  the  world. 

Greeks.  —  No  people  are  more  interesting  to  us  than  the  ancient 
Greeks,  who  inhabited  a  mountainous  peninsula  in  the  southeast  of 
Europe.  Their  civilization  came  r.-\ther  later  than  that  of  Egypt ; 
their  ideas  of  religion  were  less  gloomy  than  those  of  other  pagan 
nations  ;  and  their  progress  in  art  and  their  perception  of  beauty 
much  greater.  They  gave  human  forms  and  passions  to  their  many 
gods  and  goddesses,  built  temples,  and  held  national  festivals  in 
their  honor.  The  Greeks  took  great  care  to  strengthen  and  develop 
the  body  into  its  greatest  possible  perfection,  and  athletic  games 
were  held  at  their  religious  festivals,  —  foot  races,  chariot  races, 
boxing,  leaping,  and  wrestling.  The  victors  in  these  games  were 
crowned  with  laurel  and  regarded  with  honor  and  respect.  Many 
of  the  beautiful  marble  statues,  made  by  the  Greek  sculptors,  to  rep- 
resent their  gods,  are  still  preserved,  and  are  admired  by  all  modern 
nations  as  the  finest  models.  We  are  familiar  with  the  mythology 
of  the  Greeks,  or  the  fabulous  adventures  of  their  divinities,  and 
meet  everywhere,  in  marble,  bronze,  painting,  and  engraving,  repre- 
sentations of  Apollo,  Mercury,  "Venus,  Cupid,  &c.  Their  temples 
were  fine  specimens  of  architecture,  and  are  still  imitated  in  modern 
buildings.  The  Athens  of  those  days  was  celebrated  not  only  for  its 
magnificent  temples,  but  for  its  schools  and  philosophers,  and  was 
the  seat  of  learning  and  art. 

Romans.  —  While  Greece  was  reaching  this  high  degree  of  fame 
and  prosperity,  another  nation  was  rising  into  power.  A  band  of 
rude  adventurers  had  built  a  city  called  Rome,  in  the  west  of  Italy, 
which  region  was  then  peopled  by  various  tribes  living  in  walled 
towns.  Gradually  these  towns  were  conquered  by  the  Romans,  who 
grew  into  a  great  nation,  caring  less  for  art  than  the  Greeks,  and 
more  for  war  and  conquest.  The  more  they  felt  their  strength,  the 
more  eager  were  they  for  battle  and  fame,  and  at  last  they  conquered 
the  surrounding  countries,  —  Egypt,  Syria,  and,  after  years  of  war 
with  the  Carthaginians,  all  the  African  shore.  Armies  were  sent 
against  the  uncivilized  tribes  of  Spain  and  France,  and  our  young 
students  still  read  in  Latin,  the  language  of  these  old  Romans,  an 
account  of  their  campaign  in  Oaul,  as  France  was  then  called,  written 
by  the  Roman  general  Ciesar.  Greece  was  also  conquered,  and  thus 
almost  the  whole  known  world, — that  is  to  say,  all  the  countries 
around  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  as  far  east  as  India,  came  within 
the  Roman  Empire.  The  Romans  also  reached  England,  or  Britain ; 
had  some  knowledge  of  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Middle  Europe  ;  and 
had  heard  vague  stories  of  the  Blacks  of  Ethiopia,  or  Africa.  The 
maps  and  descriptions  of  that  time  included  Northern  Africa,  South- 
western Asia,  and  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  India  ?  Who  were  the  Greeks  ?  How  did  they  com- 
pare with  the  Egyptians  ?  What  is  said  of  their  games  ?  Of  their  statues  and  gods  ? 
Temples  ?  What  was  their  great  city  ?  What  nation  succeeded  the  Greeks  in  power  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  foundation  and  growth  of  Rome  ?  What  countries  did  the  Romans 
conquer  ?    What  was  the  extent  of  the  empire  ?    What  did  their  maps  include  ? 


26 


OUR  "WORLD. 


As  the  Bomans  became  powerful  and  wealthy,  they  also  became 
indolent,  dissipated,  and  fond  of  luxury  and  amusement.  Some  of 
their  emperors  were  monsters  of  cruelty ;  and  noblemen,  whose  an- 
cestors had  lived  simply,  caring  only  for  the  national  fame,  lavished 
incredible  sums  on  banquets,  dress,  baths,  and  shows  of  wild  beasts. 
Dissensions,  rebellions,  conspiracies  broke  out  among  them  ;  and 
while  these  once  warlike  Romans  grew  weaker  and  weaker,  the 
strong,  fierce, barbarians  north  of  them  were  coveting  the  lands  south 
of  the  Danube,  which  were  richer  and  pleasanter  than  their  own. 
At  last  these  northern  hordes  —  Goths,  Vandals,  and  Huns,  barbarians 
who  had  lived  in  rude  huts,  or  wandered  without  homes,  dressed  in 
skins,  and  ignorant  of  all  the  arts  of  civilized  life  —  poured  down 
upon  the  Empire.  Some  went  into  France,  others  into  Spain,  others 
into  Italy,  some  even  into  Africa.  The  Empire  was  overwhelmed ; 
cities  were  destroyed ;  libraries  burned ;  and  the  progress  of  the 
world  in  learning  and  civilizatic/n  seemed  to  be  put  back  many  ages. 
This  was  the  end  of  what  is  known  as  the  period  oi  ancient  history,  — 
that  is,  of  the  history  of  nations  which  reached  a  considerable  degree 
of  civilization,  but  afterward  declined  or  disappeared  entirely  from 
the  earth. 

MIDDLE  AGES.    , 

The  ancient  period  was  followed  by  what  are  called  the  "Dark 
Ages,"  — because  barbarism  and  ignorance  seemed  to  have  regained 
possession  of  the  world,  — or  the  "  Middle  Ages,"  as  being  a  transi- 
tion period  between  the  civilization  of  ancient  and  modern  times. 
New  kingdoms  were  established  in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  England, 
and  Germany  ;  one  barbarian  king  succeeded  another,  and  there  was 
constant  fighting,  and  changing  of  boundary  lines.  Meanwhile  the 
rude  Goths  received  some  ideas  from  the  people  they  had  conquered. 
They  learned  to  live  in  better  dwellings,  to  build  walled  cities, 
to  use  armor,  and  to  carry  on  some  kinds  of  manufactures.  For  a 
long  time,  however,  everything  like  trade  or  handicraft  was  despised 
by  the  upper  classes,  and  all  book-learning  was  confined  to  the  priests 
and  monks.  The  strong  became  kings,  chiefs,  or  nobles  ;  and  the 
most  powerful  took  possession  of  the  best  lands.  Each  noble  or 
leader  gathered  about  him  as  many  dependents  as  desired  his  pro- 
tection, or  the  plunder  that  they  could  riot>  obtain  alone  ;  and  he 
became  the  lord  and  they  the  vassals.  The  leaders  built  their  strong- 
holds or  castles,  on  rugged  heights,  diflScult  to  reach.  Every  part 
was  made  with  reference  to  war ;  —  the  walls  were  built  of  massive 
stone  ;  narrow  loop-holes  answered  for  windows  ;  there  were  great 
cellars  and  court-yards  wherein  to  store  supplies  in  times  of  siege  ; 
dungeons  beneath  the  castle  for  prisoners ;  and  moats  or  ditches 
around  the  walls,  crossed  by  draw-bridges  that  could  be  quickly 
removed.  Such  were  the  homes  of  the  nobles  of  those  times,  and 
the  ladies  rode  abroad  only  under  an  escort  of  armed  men.  The 
lords  owed  allegiance  to  their  sovereign,  and  were  expected  to  come 
at  his  command,  in  times  of  common  need,  with  all  their  retainers ; 
but  they  were  often  more  powerful  than  the  king  himself,  and  refused 
obedience,  or  rebelled  outright.  As  the  broad  lands  and  titles  de- 
scended from  father  to  son,  each  generation  became  more  haughty 
and  independent. 

In  time,  however,  Christianity  spread  among  these  people,  and  pre- 
pared them  for  improvement ;  though  there  was  much  superstition. 

Questions.  —  Why  did  the  Romans  lose  their  glory  ?  By  whom  were  they  con- 
quered ?  What  i»  meant  by  ancient  history  ?  Wkat  were  the  middle  or  dark  ages  ? 
What  kingdoms  were  established  by  the  barbarians  ?  How  did  the  barbarians  im- 
prove ?  What  is  said  of  the  nobles  or  leaders  ?  Of  their  dwellings  or  castles  ?  What 
I  the  relation  between  king  and  nobles  ? 


and  many  feared  the  God  preached  by  the  monks  as  their  forefathers 
had  feared  their  idols.  Abbeys  and  monasteries  appeared  through- 
out Europe  ;  at  first  in  secluded  spots,  through  fear  of  marauding 
bands  of  pagan  barbarians  ;  then  in  open  view,  under  the  protection 
of  the  powerful  lords,  and  endowed  with  land  and  wealth.  In  time, 
the  grand  old  cathedrals  were  built,  which  cost  such  vast  sums, 
and  were  not  completed  for  centuries,  or  still  remain  unfinished. 
Princes  and  nobles,  either  from  piety  or  to  expiate  their  sins,  de- 
voted immense  treasure,  which  had  been  too  often  obtained  by  plun- 
der and  oppression,  to  their  erection.  Money  that  is  now  expended 
on  highways  or  railroads,  in  lighting  the  streets  of  cities,  for  schools, 
and  for  many  other  needs  unknown  in  those  times,  was  then  all  lav- 
ished upon  one  building. 

While  kings  and  nobles  often  could  not  read  or  write,  and  held  in 
contempt  all  peaceful  occupations,  the  industrious  middle  classes 
improved  in  manufactures,  extended  trade,  and  became  a  wealthy 
and  powerful  body  in  spite  of  the  oppression  of  the  nobles.  It  was 
during  these  centuries  that  the  kingdoms  of  Spain,  France,  Germany, 
and  England  grew  in  power,  and  were  prepared  for  modern  civiliza- 
tion. The  "Dutch,  or  Netherlanders,  and  the  Portuguese  had  vessels 
on  all  known  waters,  and  had  made  their  way  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  •  Christopher .  Columbus,  a  skilful  Genoese  sailor,  fully  con- 
vinced that  the  earth  was  round,  and  that  he  could  reach  India 
more  directly  by  sailing  westward,  obtained  from  the  court  of  Spain 
ships  with  which  to  attempt  the  voyage.  Striking  boldly  out  into 
mid-ocean,  he  was  carried  westward  by  the  trade  winds,  and  at  last 
reached  land,  — not  India,  as  he  supposed,  but  a  small  island  belong- 
ing to  the  group  since  known  as  the  Bahamas. 

Returning  to  Spain  with  the  news  of  his  discovery,  Columbus  was 
soon  followed  by  other  explorers  eager  to  claim  a  portion  of  the  new 
lands. 


MODERN    TIMES. 

With  the  discovery  and  settlement  of  America  a  new  epoch  in  the 
world's  history  began.  The  extension  of  navigation  and  trade  brought 
many  important  changes,  and  the  European  nations  advanced  rapidly 
in  civilization.  The  invention  of  printing  made  education  more  gen- 
eral ;  ancient  arts  were  revived ;  new  manufactures  introduced  ;  and 
the  old  civilization  was  surpassed  in  many  respects.  During  this 
modern  period  of  the  world's  history  the  farthest  limits  of  the  habit- 
able earth  have  been  explored,  and  the  most  distant  nations  brought 
into  such  easy  and  constant  communication  that  the  prosperity  or 
misfortune  of  one  affects  the  comfort  and  welfare  of  all.  War  in 
France  cuts  off  the  supply  of  her  manufactures  to  other  countries, 
and  the  failure  of  the  cotton  crop  in  America  throws  thousands  of 
English  workmen  out  of  employment.  Even  the  horrors  of  famine 
and  conflagration  are  lessened  by  the  aid  and  sympathy  so  quickly 
conveyed  to  the  sufferers  by  means  of  the  railway  and  telegraph. 
Better  laws  now  prevail,  and  the  oppressions  of  the  olden  time,  when 
people  believed  in  the  "  divine  right  of  kings,"  are  no  longer  possible. 
The  strongest  national  prejudices  are  breaking  down,  and  the  gates 
of  China  and  Japan,  which,  from  the  earliest  tradition,  have  been 
closed  to  the  outer  world,  are  now  open.  Already  thousands  of 
Chinese  have  emigrated  to  the  western  continent,  and  foreigners  are 
slowly  but  surely  making  their  way  into  the  heart  of  the  Celestial 

Questions.  —  What  is  told  of  abbeys  and  cathedrals  ?  What  wealthy  and  pow- 
erful class  arose  ?  What  was  known  of  the  world  and  of  navigation  then  ?  What  is 
the  story  of  Columbus  ?  Why  could  he  not  reach  India  ?  What  effect  did  the  dis- 
covery of  America  have  in  the  Old  World  ?    What  is  said  of  modern  times  ? 


MAPS  AND  MAP-DRAWING. 


27 


Empire.  They  find  there  to-day  a  civilization  which  dates  from  the 
period  of  ancient  history,  but  which  must  soon  be  modified  by  in- 
tercourse with  other  nations. 

SUMMARY. 

THEEK  PEEIODS   OF  THK  WORLD'S   HISTORY. 

1.  Ancient  world  and  nations  from  the  earliest  tiraes  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  "Western  Roman  Empire. 

The  nations  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  —  Egyptians,  Persians, 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  lastly,  the  Romans  by  whom  the  whole 
region  was  conquered' and  formed  into  one  vast  Empire. 

India,  with  a  peculiar  local  civilization,  holding  little  intercourse 
with  the  rest  ef  the  world,  but  partially  known  and  visited  by 
merchants. 


China  and  Japan,  with  a  still  more  isolated  civilization,  almost 
unknown  to  ancient  nations. 

2.  Middle  Ages.  —  From  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire 
to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Irruption  of  barbarians  over  the  Empire  from  Northern  Europe  and 
Western  Asia.  Loss  of  arts  and  civilization.  Growth  of  European 
kingdoms.     Rise  of  trade.     Discovery  of  America. 

3.  Modem  Times. 

Settlement  of  America.  Ancient  arts  revived  in  Europe.  Useful 
inventions  and  manufactures.  Colonies  of  America  become  inde- 
pendent. Growth  of  the  United  States.  Progress  of  discovery  and 
of  modern  civilization. 


MAPS    AND    MAP-DRAWING. 


As  we  have  already  said,  the  best  way  of  obtaining  a  correct  idea 
of  the  position  and  form  of  the  bodies  of  land  and  water  upon  the 
earth's  surface  is  by  the  use  of  an  artificial  globe.  But  it  is  not  pos- 
sible for  every  student  to  have  a  globe  at  hand,  nor  would  it  be  con- 
venient to  use  one  large  enough  for  the  features  of  the  smaller  coun- 
tries to  be  distinctly  represented  upon  it.  Therefore,  for  the  study  of 
separate  countries  it  is  necessary  to  use  maps,  or  drawings  of  their 
outlines  upon  paper. 

It  is  not  easy  to  represent  the  spherical  surface  of  the  globe  on  a 
flat  surface,  as  we  may  see  by  attempting  to  flatten  the  peel  of  half 
an  erange.  Either  the  edges  will  split  in  several  places  and  cover 
too  great  a  space,  or  the  central  parts  will  be  compressed  into  less 
than  their  natural  size.  Nevertheless,  by  means  of  certain  mathe- 
matical calculations  applied  to  parallels  and  meridians,  portions  of 
the  earth's  surface  can  be  projected  on  a  plane,  without  materially 
altering  the  forms  or  outlines  ;  and  maps  of  all  parts  of  the  world 
can  be  made  for  the  use  of  students. 

Explanation  of  maps.  —  1.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  a  map- 
drawer  faces  the  north.  The  top  pf  the  map,  therefore,  is  north,  the 
right  side  east,  the  bottom  south,  and  the  left  side  west.  2.  Parallels 
arc  drawn  from  side  to  side,  at  regular  iritervals  from  the  equator  ; 
and  the  latitude,  or  distance  north  and  south  of  the  equator,  is  marked 
in  degrees  on  the  side  of  the  map,  at  the  extremities  of  the  parallels. 
3.  Meridians  extend  from  top  to  bottom,  —  the  central  meridian  being 
a  straight  line,  and  the  others  more  or  less  curved.  Longitude,  or 
distance  east  and  west  from  Greenwich  or  Washington,  is  numbered 
in  degrees  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  map. 

Maps  of  the  hemispheres.  —  Not  more  than  half  the  earth's 
surface  is  usually  drawn  on  one  plane,  and  the  whole  world  is,  there- 
fore, represented  in  two  hemispheres.  The  meridian  which  is  most 
conveniently  used  for  dividing  the  sphere  passes  through  both  the 
great  oceans,  leaving  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  on  one  side,  and 
North  and  South  America  on  the  other. 

The  frame  or  skeleton  of  the  map  of  a  hemisphere  (Fig.  1)  consists 
of  a  great  circle,  or  dividing  meridian,  with  the  north  and  south  poles 
indicated  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  the  equator  drawn  from  east  to 

Questions.  —  Give  the  summary  of  the  sketch  of  the  three  periods  of  history. 
Wliy  are  maps  used  ?  How  can  you  show  the  difficulty  of  representing  a  spherical 
surface  upon  a  plane  ?  How  can  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  be  correctly  repre- 
sented by  a  map  ?     Give  the  explanation  of  a  map.      How  is  the  whole  surface  of 


west  through  its  centre.  The  circumference  is  marked  in  degrees 
from  the  equator  to  each  pole  ;  and  parallels  and  meridians  are  drawn 
as  in  the    figure.  ^^  j^|^ 

The  polar  circles 
are  drawn  23^ 
degrees  from  the 
poles  ;  and  the 
tropics  of  Cancer 
and  Capricorn  23^ 
degrees  from  the 
equator.^  In  this 
frame  -  work,  the 
first  thing  that 
strikes  the  eye  is 
that  the  parallels 
are  not  really 
parallel  with,  or 
equidistant  at  ev- 
ery point  from 
the  equator.  This 
is  owing  to  the 
impossibility,  al- 
ready mentioned, 
of  substituting  exactly  a  flat  for  a  spherical  surface.  We  know 
that  on  the  globe  every  point  of  the  equator  is  equally  distant  from 
the  north  pole,  yet  on  the  map  the  quarter  meridian  E  P  is  longer 
than  the  quarter  meridian  C  P.  In  order  that  the  parallels  may 
divide  these  two  meridians  proportionately  they  must  curve  toward 
the  poles  ;  and,  by  the  "projection"  of  a  portion  of  a  spherical  sur- 
face upon  a  plane,  we  mean  the  careful  calculation  of  the  necessary 
variations  in  all  these  curves,  so  as  to  give  upon  the  map  the  true 
forms  of  the  continents.  The  curvature  of  the  parallels  is  greater 
toward  the  poles,  because  each  parallel  is  the  circumference  of  a 
smaller  circle  than  the  one  preceding  it.  Near  the  equator,  the 
curvature  of  parallels,  for  a  small  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  is 
very  slight ;  therefore,  on  maps  of  single  countries  situated  there, 

the  earth  generally  represented  ?  Explain  the  framework  of  a  map  of  a  hemisphere. 
Why  are  the  parallels  not  drawn  parallel  to  the  equator  ?  What  is  meant  by  the 
projection  of  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  upon  a  plane  ?  How  does  the  curvature 
of  the  parallels  vary  ? 


28 


OUR  WORLD. 


the  lines  for  parallels  may  be  straight  without  causing  any  evident 
inaccuracy  in  the  outlines. 

Map  on  Mercator's  Frqjectioii.  —  For  some  purposes  it  is  very 
desirable  to  see  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  at  once,  and  this  may 
be  done  by  represent'ng  it  as  though  it  were  a  cylinder  instead 
of  a  sphere.  This,  however, 
widens  the  polar  regions  very 
much  from  east  to  west  (see 
Fig.  2),  and  in  order  tliat  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America  may  not 
be  broadened  out  of  all  pro- 
portion, they  are  also  length- 
ened from  north  to  south  by 
increasing  the  distances  be- 
tween the  parallels  toward 
the  pole.  Thus  the  forms  of 
the  continents  are  easily  re- 
cognized, though  still  dispro- 
portionately broad  at  the  top. 
Such  a  map  is  called 


\ 


Fig.  2. 

Mercator's  projection."  (See  page  23.) 
Charts,  or  representations  of  sea  and  coast,  are  made  on  Mercator's 
projection  ;  and  navigators  find  the  direction  between  any  two  places 
indicated  with  accuracy  for  any  part  of  the  earth. 

The  scale  on  which  a  map  is  dra^xm. -^  Every  map  is  con- 
structed on  a  given  scale  of  miles  to  an  inch  ;  and  maps  of  any 
country  may  be  made  larger  or  smaller  as  desired.  If  a  line  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  long  is  given  to  represent  a  distance  of  ten  miles,  a  map 
ten  inches  square  would  represent  a  surface  four  hundred  miles  long 

and  four  hundred  miles  

wide.  A  map  with  ten 
miles  to  every  half  inch 
must  be  twice  as  long 
and  twice  as  broad  to 
represent  the  same  sur- 
face (see  Figs.  3  and  3'). 


Kg.  3.  Pig   3'. 

Distances  on  maps  are  measured  by  degrees.  Latitude  is  meas- 
ured on  great  circles  ;  hence  the  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude  is 
about  the  same  on  all  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  Each  degree  is 
equal  to  sixty  geographical  miles,  or  about  sixty-nine  and  one  sixth 
statute  miles.  Longitude  is  i^asured  on  the  equator,  and  on  paral- 
lels ;  hence  degrees  of  longitude  vary  in  length.  At  the  equator  a 
degree  of  longitude  is  a  little  over  sixty-nine  miles  ;  on  the  fortieth 
parallel  it  is  about  fifty-three  miles ;  on  the  seventieth  parallel  it  is 
about  twenty-three  and  a  half  miles. 

Questions.  —  What  is  a  map  on  Mercator's  projection,  and  when  used !  How 
does  it  alter  the  forms  of  the  continents  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  scale  of  a  map  ? 
How  are  distances  on  maps  measured  ?  Why  is  the  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude 
about  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  ?  Give  the  length  in  miles.  What  is  said  of 
degrees  of  longitude  ? 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  MAP-DRAWING. 

It  is  desirable,  in  studying  geography,  to  aid  the  memory  by  draw- 
ing the  outlines  of  countries,  and  indicating  the  position  of  their 
towns,  rivers,  mountains,  etc.  The  accurate  projection  of  a  map  is 
too  diflScult  and  tedious  for  young  students ;  but  for  ordinary  prac- 
tice it  is  sufiicient  to  copy  the  reference  map,  either  by  eye  or 
measurement.  Most  pupils  can,  with  a  little  practice,  copy  a  map, 
or  even  reproduce  it  from  memory,  with  suflScient  accuracy  for 
purposes  of  study  ;  but  for  those  who  may  need  them,  the  following 
suggestions  are  offered. 


FIRST    METHOD, 


WITHOUT    THE  USE  OF    PARALLELS    OR 
MERIDIANS. 


1.  Rule  a  border,  or  frame,  for  the  intended  map. 

2.  Draw  two  faint  lines  crossing  this  through  the  centre,  one  from 
north  to  south,  the  other  from  east  to  west. 

3.  Cross  the  map  used  as  a  model  with  two  similar  lines,  or  with 
very  narrow  strips  of  paper. 

Consider  carefully  what  parts  ol'  the  country  lie  in  each  quarter  of 


■r^ 

'K 

1-' 

E 

a  . 

J-     9 

f 

• 

e 

Fig.  4. 

the  map.  Find  by  eye  or  measurement  the  most  northern,  eastern,  or 
southern  points,  and  dot  corresponding  points  within  the  frame  just 
made.  Then  draw  the  outline  from  point  to  point  lightly,  and,  if 
correct,  trace  it  over  again  with  a  sharp,  black  pencil,  or  with  pen 
and  ink. 

SECOND   METHOD,  — WITH   PARALLELS. 

Frames  or  skeletons  for  maps,  with  the  parallels  and  meridians 
already  drawn  and  numbered,  may  be  bought  at  the  stationer's  ; 
but  it  is  good  practice  to  draw  these  lines  by  eye  or  measure- 
ment, m 

1.  Rule  the  border  of  the  map  and  the  perpendicular  meridian 
through  the  middle. 

2.  Draw  the  other  meridians  and  the  parallels,  curving  them  more 
or  less  according  to  the  position  of  the  country.  The  parallels  of 
North  America  or  Asia  must  curve  considerably,  while  those  of  Africa 
or  South  America  may  be  very  slightly  curved,  or  even  ruled  straight 
without  affecting  the  form  of  these  continents,  since  they  are  mostly 
within  the  torrid  zone. 

3.  Number  the  parallels  and  meridians  to  correspond  with  the 
model. 

4.  Select  prominent  points  of  the  outline  and  indicate  them  accu- 
rately by  counting  the  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude. 

5.  Continue  the  coast  from  point  to  point,  carefully  considering 
on  or  near  which  parallel  or  meridian  intermediate  points  should 
come. 

Questions.  —  What  is  the  advantage  of  map-drawing  ?  Draw  upon  the  blackboard 
a  map  of  South  America  by  the  first  method  given  for  drawing  a  m&p.  Draw  a  map 
of  Africa  by  the  second  method. 


MAPS  AND  MAP-DRAWING. 


29 


A  projection  may  be  made  with  some  degree  of  exactness  by  ob- 
serving the  directions  which  follow,  in  place  of  those  numbered  2 
in  the  method  just  given. 

Divide  the  perpendicular  meridian  into  spaces  of  one,  two,  or  five 
degrees  each,  according  to  the  country  represented  and  the  size  of  the 
map. 

Through  the  division  points  draw  the  parallels  of  latitude,  curving 
them  more  or  less  according  to  the  position  of  the  country.  The 
centre  of  curvature  will  be  on  the  side  of  the  nearest  pole. 

Mark  off  upon  each  parallel,  right  and  leftfroin  the  central  meridian, 
spaces  found  by  consulting  the  following  Table.  These  will  be  frac- 
tional parts  of  the  spaces  already  marked  on  the  central  meridian. 
For  instance,  if  the  map  be  of  Canada,  the  lowest  parallel  may  be 
40°,  the  highest  50°.  On  the  40th  parallel  a  degree  of  longitude  is 
52.8  miles,  while  a  degree  of  the  meridian  is  69.2  miles  ;  therefore  the 
spaces  on  that  parallel  will  be  ||f ,  or  about  f  of  the  meridian  spaces. 
On  the  50th  parallel  the  spaces  will  be  ||J,  or  a  little  less  than  f ,  and 
on  the  45th  parallel  ||J,  or  about  f  of  the  meridian  spaces. 

Draw  meridians  through  the  division  points  of  the  parallels.  Unless 
great  accuracy  be  required,  however,  the  meridians  may  be  ruled 
straight. 

Table  of  Lengths  of  Degrees  of  Longitude  in  various  Latitudes. 

At  the  Equator  1°  of  Longitude  =  69.2  miles. 


Latitude. 

rof  L 

5° 

68.8 

lO" 

68.0 

15° 

66.7 

20' 

64.9 

25° 

62.6 

30° 

59.8 

35° 

56.5 

40° 

,52.8 

Latitude. 

V  of  Longitude 

45° 

48.7  miles. 

50» 

44.3      " 

55" 

39.5      " 

60° 

34.5      " 

65° 

29.2      " 

70° 

23.6     " 

75° 

17.8      " 

80° 

12.0      " 

To  increase  or  dinUnish  the  size  of  a  map  without  the  use  of 
parallels  and  meridians. 

1.  Trace  on  thin  paper  the  border  and  coast  line  of  the  model  map, 
and  cross  it  in  both  directions  with  lines  at  regular  intervals,  forming 
a  number  of  small  squares. 


1 

2 

3 

i 

5 

I 

0 

r^ 

\i 

\ 

(■  ( 

^ 

s 

\ 

A 

u<\ 

I 

e 

^ 

K 

\ 

1 
a 

2 

3 

4 

i 

h 

n 

AT' 

\i 

\ 

'       ( 

^ 

\ 

■\ 

^^^^ 

A 

J 

e 

^' 

\ 

t 

Wg  5.  _^__^__ 

Fig.  5'. 

2.  Rule  a  border  for  the  intended  map  of  the  size  desired,  and 
cross  it  with  the  some  number  of  lines.  If  the  frame  is  prepared  for 
a  larger  map,  the  square^  will  be  proportionately  larger  than  those 
upon  the  traced  outline.     (See  Figs.  5  and  5'.) 

3.  Select  and  indicate  convenient  points  in  the  coast  line ;  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  one  at  the  crossing  of  lines  2  and  d,  and  then 
draw  the  whole  outline  by  referring  carefully  to  the  corresponding 
squares.  In  all  cases  make  the  coast  lines  very  light  at  first,  so 
that  they  can  be  easily  erased  and  corrected. 

Questions.  -  How  may  a  map  of  Africa  be  more  accurately  constructed  ?  Show 
how  a  map  of  a  country  may  be  enlarged.     Show  how  it  may  be  diminished. 


Coast  lines.  —  A  coast  lino  may  be  shaded  by  several  lighter 
lines  following  the  coast  outside,  as  in  Fig.  6 ;  or  by  short,  quick 


Fig  6.  Fig.  6'. 

pencil-touches  always  running  east  and  west,  as  in  Fig.  6'.  The 
shading  should  bo  done  upon  the  faint  outline,  so  that  the  heavy 
coast  line  afterward  drawn  may 
come  out  clear  and  distinct  from 
the  shade. 

A  very  soft,  delicate  coast-shading 
may  be  made  by  cutting  out  the 
traced  outline  of  a  continent  or 
country,  placing  it  upon  a  blank 
sheet,  and  shading  around  its  edges 
with  a  stump  and  pencil  dust.  Then 
draw  the  heavy  coast  line  inside  this 
shading,  and  complete  the  map. 

Mountains.  —  The  lines  for 
mountains  should  be  made  wider 
and  heavier  according  to  height. 
1.  Mark  out  with  light  dots  the  general  form  or  direction  of  the 
chain.  2.  Shade  with  two  rows  of  nearly  parallel  lines,  varying  in 
length  and  size.  Sometimes  leave  white  spaces  between  these  rows, 
where  the  chain  is  broad  ;  and  for  narrow  chains  leave  only  short 
black  lines  or  dots.  Break  and 
vary  the  shading  of  long  chains  liivei* 

as  much  as  possible.  3.  Slight 
pencil-touches,  in  a  single,  irreg- 
ular line,  may  be  used  for  low 
ridges  or  hills. 

Rivers.  —  Mark  the  course  of 
a  river  faintly  by  comparing  with 
the  parallels  and  meridians,  or  by 
the  eye.  Then  begin  lightly  at 
the  source  and  make  the  waving 
line  heavier  and  blacker  toward 
the  mouth. 

To'wns  are  represented  by  small  black  dots  or  stars. 

Much  practice  is  needed  to  draw  maps  well  ;  and  this  practice 
serves  to  fi.\  the  form  of  outlines  and  the  position  of  mountains, 
rivers,  and  cities  in  the  mind,  so  tha*  the  pupil  will  be  able  to  draw 
from  memory.  From  beginning  to  end  of  the  study  of  geography 
it  is  desirable  for  the  pupil  to  make  rapid  sketches  of  maps  upon 
the  black-board  at  the  time  of  recitation.  The  map-studies  given 
throughout  the  book  may  be  recited  from  such  sketches,  in  the  man- 
ner suggested  at  the  beginning  of  the  section  on  the  study  of  the 
map  of  North  America. 

Questions.  —  What  directions  are  given  for  shading  a  coast  line  ?  How  may 
mountains  be  represented  ?    How  may  rivers  be  represented  ?    Towns  ? 


Hg.8 


"WHSTEB-jf  HEIEIBMIEEE . 


Xa!*»rcll'^  I^ 


^D.-J'evstrv  («•««»». 


SaT^Mors      j,r^w^«le,K.;.      ...T">lli»"K 


■*'-4*'-., 


■ajf-<"»« 


^"«'""4) 


.S;  Paid  1 


fnlliu. ',  ytl- 


'^H4 


^loqiio 


V  ;'I'<^"«iiib.|.„ 


Vi/.li_-      .     i''\    I'-'Bi... 


rl^''^"-„"^""- 


7':»»N  L*.       y       '"■^ 


.  A  "  ''  ""  ^  .' ■ 


EXEEOISES    OlS"   MAPS 

Wiat  is  the  latitude  of  the  southern  point  of  G,«,nland  !  Of  the  southern  point  of  Newfoundland  ?  Of  New  York  City  ?  Of  the  southern  F^^  pu^  »  «[  ^1 
Horn  ^  Of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  1  What  countries  in  both  hemispheres  are  crossed  by  the  20th  parallel  of  north  latitude  ?  By  the  tr^ic  o.  Cancer  ?  .^"^  "  *J^ ^^^^^ 
of  San  Francisco?  mat  is  the  longitude  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope?  Give  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  Boston.  Of  Canton  What  g?"'!/^^^;^ J"f  ^^ 
L  crossed  by  the  equator  ?    What  cities  of  South  imerica  are  in  nearly  the  same  longitude  as  Washington  ?     Whach  grand  divisions  widen  toward  the  north  I    Which 


I 


lACTiiiof  'iFirMiri^imnririF^ia.. 


OF   THE   HEMISPHEEES. 


G.tirS^n/anSr . 


extend  through  the  greatest  number  of  degrees  of  latitude  ?  Which  through  the  greatest  number  of  degrees  «pf  longitude  ?  'Wliich  have  the  greatest  variety  of  climate  ? 
Between  what  parallels  does  Africa  lie  ?  What  then  must  be  its  climate  ?  What  great  mountain-chains  run  north  and  south  '(  Which  run  east  and  west  ?  What  is  the 
difference  in  time  between  London  and  Calcutta  ?    Why  ?    When  it  is  noon  at  St.  Petersburg  what  is  the  hour  in  London  ?  ' 


32 


OUR  WORLD. 


THE    OOISTTINEN^TS. 

Having  considered  the  earth  as  a  revolving  globe,  with  its  surrounding  atmosphere  and  waters,  its  seasons,  climates,  and  other  general 
features,  we  are  now  prepared  to  study  the  geography  of  each  continent  and  country.  This  includes  a  description  of  the  surface,  moun- 
iains,  rivers,  vegetation,  animals,  and  other  physical  or  natural  features  ;  and  also  an  account  of  the  political  condition,  the  form  of  govern- 
ment, the  boundary-lines,  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  historical  associations. 

NORTH   AMERICA. 


HISTORY. 

EXPLORATIONS. 

It  was  near  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  Christopher 
Columbus  made  his  first  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  reaching  one  of 
the  Bahama  islands,  which  he  called  San  Salvador.  On  another  voy- 
age, a  few  years  later,  he  discovered  the  mainland  of  South  America. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  continent  should  have  been  called 
Columbia ;  but  another  explorer,  Amerigo  Vespucci,  followed  soon 
afterward,  and  the  story  of  his  adventures  being  the  first  published 
account  of  the  new  world,  it  took  from  him  the  name  of  America. 

When  the  first  explorers  returned  home  with  the  wonderful  news 
of  their  discoveries,  their  stories,  vaguely  gathered  from  the  natives, 
of  abundant' gold  and  silver,  produced  a  great  sensation  throughout 
the  west  of  Europe.  The  Spaniards,  eager  to  possess  themselves  of 
these  new  lands  and  treasures,  sent  out  other  expeditions  ;  established 
colonies  in  the  West  Indies  ;  explored  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea  ;  and  claimed  the  whole  region  for  the  King  of 
Spain,  by  right  of  discovery.  The  English,  French,  and  Portuguese, 
all  coveting  a  share  in  the  honor  and  profit  of  farther  explorations, 
also  fitted  out  vessels  for  the  New  World. 
'  The  voyage  was  not  then  what  it  is  now,  when  the  Atlantic  has  be- 
come a  familiar  highway  to  the  sailors  of  all  nations.  Vessels  were 
small,  inconvenient,  and  unsafe  ;  supplies  were  altogether  insufiicient ; 
sailors  knew  little  of  the  science  of  navigation  ;  and  the  vast  expanse 
of  waters  lay  before  them,  with  its  unknown  winds,  currents,  and 
dangers.  After  a  hazardous  voyage  there  was  on  the  American  side 
no  busy  city,  no  comfortable  home,  no  aid  nor  shelter  for  the  adven- 
turers. Moreover,  large  sums  were  needed  for  the  outfit  of  an  expe- 
dition, and  often  wars  and  diflficulties  in  the  old  countries  occupied 
the  attention  of  influential  or  wealthy  persons,  who  might  otherwise 
have  aided  and  protected  new  settlements. 

Company  after  company  of  adventurers  touched  upon  the  American 
shores,  —  now  running  their  vessels  upon  the  bare  rocks  of  Labrador  ; 
now  forcing  them  through  the  ice  of  the  northern  seas  ;  now  gliding 
into  smooth  streams  amid  silent  forests  yet  untrodden  by  man.  Many 
were  lost  at  sea ;  some  were  stranded  among  sand-bars  and  islets 
along  the  shores  ;  some  perished  with  hunger  in  the  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  found  a  colony  ;  and  others,  discouraged  by  difficulties,  re- 
turned home.  ■ 

Thus  the  work  of  colonization  did  not  advance  rapidly,  and  the 
close  of  another  century  came  before  the  Atlantic  coast  was  perma- 
nently settled  by  Europeans  ;  yet  much  had  been  done  to  prepare  the 
way  for  future  success.  Accounts  of  various  exploring  expeditions 
had  been  written  ;  general  attention  had  been  turned  to  the  improve- 

Questions.  —  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Atlantic  first  crossed  ?  What  land  was 
discovered  ?  When  was  the  continent  itself  discovered  ?  Why  called  America  ? 
What  explorations  were  made  after  the  first  discoveries  ?  What  difficulties  did  the 
early  navigators  meet  ? 


ment  of  maps,  charts,  methods  of  navigation,  and  geographical  infor- 
mation ;  the  way  across  the  ocean  was  opened  ;  and  here  and  there 
on  the  western  shore  stood  log-forts  as  landmarks. 

The  French  had  explored  tlie  northeast  country  ;  left  their  names 
along  the  St.  Lawrence  river  ;  laid  claim  to  the  region  now  occupied 
by  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  etc  ,  which  was  called  New  France  ; 
and  were  engaged  in  fisheries  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 

The  English  had  made  various  attempts  to  find  a  northwest  passage 
to  Asia,  through  the  Arctic  ocean  ;  and,  during  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  had  explored  the  Atlantic  coast  between  Nova  Scotia  and 
Florida,  naming  it  Virginia.  The  English  were  also  engaged  in  the 
Newfoundland  fisheries. 

The  Spaniards  had  fought  their  way  into  the  interior  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  discovered  the  Mississippi,  and  made  at  St.  Augus- 
tine, in  Florida,  the  first  permanent  settlement  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

COLONIES. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  three  permanent  settlements  were 
established  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  which  became  centres  of  future 
colonization,  and  have  had  an  important  influence  upon  the  history  of 
our  country.     Two  of  these  were  English,  and  the  third  French. 

Ne'W  France.  —  The  French  extended  their  settlements  along  the 
St.  Lawrence,  ai:d  on  the  islands  at  its  mouth.  Their  Jesuit  priests 
wandered,  as  missionaries  among  the  savages,  west  into  the  region 
of  the  great  lake's  ;  the  city  of  Quebec  was  founded  ;  and,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  or  "  Acadia,"  as  it  was  then  called,  an  industrious  little 
community  of  farmers  had  made  a  home.  But  at  the  close  of  a  war 
between  England  and  France,  in  the  next  century,  the  French  colo- 
nies were  ceded  to  the  English,  whose  territory  then  included  all 
the  northern  region  since  known  as  British  America,  and  the  Atlan- 
tic colonies. 

Virginia.  —  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  of  England,  a  company  of 
merchants  and  noblemen,  in  or  near  London,  obtained  a  grant  of  land 
in  the  great  Virginian  territory,  and  sent  out  a  party  once  more  to 
attempt  a  settlement.  After  exploring  the  coast  for  some  distance, 
the  adventurers  found  a  suitable  spot  for  their  colony  on  one  of  the 
many  streams  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  and  named  the  river  and  set- 
tlement James  river  and  Jamestown,  in  honor  of  King  James.  Here 
they  felled  trees,  built  log-huts,  cleared  little  patches  of  land,  and 
planted  their  first  crops.  They  found  a  mild  climate,  abundant  fuel 
and  lumber  in  the  vast  forests,  and  a  rich,  new  soil,  promising  full 
harvests.  Yet  the  new  settlers  suff"ered,  as  their  predecessors  had 
done,  from  exposure,  fevers,  want  of  food,  troubles  with  the  savages, 
quarrels  among  themselves,  and  bad  government.     Just  as  they  had 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  French  explorers?  Of  the  English  explora- 
tions ?  Of  the  Spanish  ?  What  three  colonies  were  established  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  ?  What  is  said  of  New  France,  or  the  French  settlements  ?  What 
became  of  these  colonies?  Where  and  by  whom  was  the  first  English  settlement 
made? 


NORTH   AMERICA. 


33 


become  discouraged,  as  others  had  been  before  them,  another  party 
of  colonists  arrived  from  England,  with  stores  and  farming  imple- 
ments, and  a  new  governor.  Henceforth  the  colony  prospered,  and 
in  time  grew  into  the  State  of  Virginia,  or  the  "  Old  Dominion  "  as 
the  inhabitants  afterward  liked  to  call  it,  —  the  oldest  State  in  our 
Union. 

Plymouth.  —  While  the  exploration  of  the  newly  discovered  con- 
tinent had  been  going  on,  there  were  living  in  Holland  a  number  of 
English  families,  who  had  left  home  to  escape  from  the  persecution 
which  they  had  suffered  on  account  of  their  religious  opinions. 
After  remaining  in  Holland  several  years,  they  found  that  their  chil- 
dren were  exposed  to  many  temptations  ;  and  therefore,  hearing  of 
the  new  world  across  the  water,  they  determined  to  make,  in  that 
wild,  unsettled  land,  another  home,  where  they  would  be  free  to  wor- 
ship according  to  their  belief.  Making  the  necessary  preparations 
for  the  voyage,  they  embarked  in  one  small  vessel,  but  were  joined  on 
the  English  coast  by  another  ship,  containing  others  of  their  faith. 
Soon,  however,  one  of  the  vessels  was  pronounced  unfit  for  the 
voyage,  and  they  returned  to  England.  A  part  of  the  company  was 
left  behind,  and  the  "  Mayflower  "  then  sailed  alone  from  the  port  of 
Plymouth.  If  the  Virginia  colony  had  suffered  privations  and  dis- 
tress, the  Pilgrims  endured  still  greater  hardships.  Instead  of  the 
mild  climate,  rich  soil  and  forests  of  Virginia,  they  found  the  rocky 
shores  of  New  England,  and  landed  shelterless  and  helpless  amid  the 
snows  and  keen  winds  of  winter.  They  persevered  through  incredi- 
ble sufferings  and  difficulties  ;  and  though  the  bleak  hillside  con- 
tained many  graves  before  spring,  they  succeeded  in  establishing  the 
first  New  England  colony,  which  was  called  Plymouth,  in  remem- 
brance of  the  old  English  port.  These  two  colonies  at  Jamestown 
and  Plymouth,  founded  under  such  different  circumstances,  were 
followed  by  other  settlements,  until  the  colonization  of  the  Atlantic 
ceast  spread  from  Maine  to  Florida. 

Spaniards.  —  Meanwhile  the  Spaniards  ceased  to  care  for  the 
little  settlement  of  St.  Augustine  in  Florida,  which  had  never  in- 
creased, and  established  themselves  permanently  in  the  southern 
portions  of  the  continent.  Spreading  throughout  the  country  even 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  they  intermarried  with  the  natives,  and  their 
descendants,  taking  the  name  of  Mexicans,  became  an  independent 
nation,  retaining,  however,  the  Spanish  language  and  customs. 

NATIVES. 

All  these  adventurers  from  Europe,  landing  on  the  shore  of  the  new 
Western  Continent,  and  finding  no  civilized  nations  to  dispute  their 
claims,  took  possession  of  the  country,  scared}'  recognizing  any  rights 
of  the  savage  inhabitants  of  the  forests.  The  first  discoverers,  believ- 
ing the  land  to  be  India,  called  these  native  Americans  "  Indians," 
and  the  name  has  since  been  applied  to  them  more  than  to  the  East 
India  tribes.  They  were  also  called  "red  men"  from  their  reddish- 
brown  color,  in  distinction  from  the  whites,  or  "  pale  faces,"  as  the 
Indians  called  the  Europeans.  Each  tribe,  however,  had  its  own 
name,  and  a  particular  tract  of  the  vast  wilderness  as  a  hunting- 
ground  ;  and  the  Pequods,  Narragansetts,  Mohegans,  Mohawks,  and 
other  tribes,  soon  became  well  known  in  colonial  history. 

These  savages  had  no  manufactures  ;  cultivated  only  a  few  patches 
of  maize,  or  Indian  corn  ;  wore  skins  for  clothing,  and  shoes  or  moc- 
casons  of  soft  buckskin.     They  soon  began  to  trade  with  the  early 

Questions.  —  Who  were  the  Pilgrims  ?  Where  and  how  was  the  second  English 
settlement  made  ?  Why  called  Plymouth  ?  Where  did  the  Spaniards  settle  ?  What 
inhabitants  did  the  Europeans  find  in  America?  Why  were  they  called  Indians? 
What  was  their  condition  ? 


settlers  for  blankets,  beads,  etc.  ;  and  henceforth  the  Indian  costume, 
which  has  become  traditional,  consisted  of  a  blanket  wrapped  about 
the  body,  moccasons  embroidered  with  many-colored  beads,  and 
ornaments  of  feathers,  fringes,  and  beads  for  both  arms  and  legs. 
The  straight,  coarse,  black  hair  of  the  men  was  closely  shaved, 
except  one  lock  on  the  top  of  the  head,  left  as  a  point  of  honor,  for 
the  convenience  of  scalping,  or  cutting  off  the  scalp  from  the  top  of 
the  head,  in  warfare.  This  lock  was  usually  tied  up  with  a  bunch  of 
feathers.  The  women  wore  their  hair  hanging  loose  over  the  shoul- 
ders, or  braided  with  various  ornaments  ;  and,  instead  of  a  blanket, 
sometimes  wore  a  dark  petticoat  adorned  with  beads  or  fringes. 


luduui  EiR'uiiipinent 

The  Indian  dwellings  were  small,  pointed  huts,  or  wigwams,  made, 
tent-like,  of  bark  or  mats  stretched  over  branches  of  trees  stuck  in 
the  ground.  As  with  all  savages,  the  women  were  drudges  ;  they 
hoed  the  corn  and  carried  burdens  ;  the  only  occupations  of  thii  men 
were  hunting  and  warfare.  The  killing  of  the  first  deer  was  an 
event  to  the  Indian  youth,  and  he  impatiently  awaited  the  first  war- 
path and  the  first  scalp,  which  would  confirm  him  in  the  dignity  of 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  their  appearance  and  dress?  Of  their  dwellings? 
Of  their  customs  ? 


34 


OUR  WORLD. 


manhood,  and  entitle  him  to  a  place  among  the  warriors.  A  chief 
was  honored  according  to  his  age  and  experience,  and  the  number  of 
scalps  boastfully  hanging  at  his  belt,  or  upon  the  pole  of  his  wigwam. 
The  weapons  of  the  Indians  were  bows  and  arrows,  headed  with  flint 
or  stone  points,  roughly  chipped  out  for  the  purpose  ;  and  the  toma- 
hawk, or  hatchet  of  stone,  which  was  hurled  with  great  dexterity  at 
the  head  of  a  foe.  Those  tribes  which  came  in  contact  with  the 
Europeans  soon  obtained  firearms,  and  iron  tomahawks  instead  of 
those  they  had  rudely  hewn* out  of  stone.  They  never  attacked 
their  enemies  in  large  numbers,  but,  dispersing  through  the  woods, 
shftt  from  behind  trees  or  bushes,  often  creeping  stealthily  into  the 
very  camp  of  the  enemy.  When  on  a  war-path  they  usually  painted 
their  skins  in  various  colors  and  devices,  and  warriors  of  different 
tribes  were  known  by  the  fashion  of  their  paint,  as  more  civilized 
soldiers  are  by  their  uniforms. 

Forest-life  gave  these  people  keen  sight  and  hearing,  quick  per- 
ception, and  a  soft,  sure  step  ;  and,  with  unerring  certainty,  they 
followed  the  faintest  trail  of  friend  or  foe  for  hundreds  of  miles  through 
the  pathless  woods.  They  were  taught  from  infancy  to  endure  pain 
without  a  murm'ur,  to  suppress  all  signs  of  emotion,  and  to  suffer 
torture  without  moving  a  muscle  of  the  face.  To  show  no  surprise, 
to  be  perfectly  calm  in  joy  or  sorrow,  was  to  support  worthily  the 
dignity  of  an  Indian  warrior.. 

These  savages,  though  ignorant,  cruel,  and  treacherous,  were  re- 
markable for  a  peculiar  dignity  and  courtesy  of  manner,  and  were 
highly  poetic  in  their  language  and  perceptions.  They  often  used 
pleasing  or  striking  comparisons,  and  names  were  given  from  some 
conspicuous  quality,  or  some  fancied  resemblance,  as  Ilawkcye,  Great 
Serpent,  Drooping  Lily,  Laughing  Water.  They  believed  in  a  Great 
Spirit,  who  was  pleased  when  they  did  right  and  displeased  when 
they  did  wrong ;  and  in  a  "  happy  hunting-ground  "  liereafter,  where 
brave  warriors  were  to  be  received  after  death. 

Such  were  the  people  already  inhabiting  the  continent  when  the 
Europeans  arrived.  At  first  they  seemed  inclined  to  be  friendly  with 
the  whites,  and  often  supplied  them  with  corn  ;  but,  again  and  again, 
they  suflered  injustice  or  abuse  from  rude,  reckless  adventurers  be- 
longing to  the  settlements,  and,  as  it  was  not  in  their  nature  to  for- 
get or  forgive  an  injury,  they  retaliated.  Here  one  man  was  killed 
by  them,  and  there  another  ;  exploring  parties  were  taken  prisoners  ; 
women  and  children  were  massacred  in  the  colonies  ;  and  at  last 
there  was  almost  constant  enmity  between  the  races.  The  colonists 
ploughed  their  fields  and  planted  their  grain  with  muskets  by  their 
side,  while  guards  were  anxiously  on  the  watch  for  the  crafty  foe. 
In  spite  of  all  precautions,  a  bullet  might  at  any  moment  whistle  by 
their  heads,  or  the  eye  of  a  savage  glare  upon  them  from  the  nearest 
thicket.  The  mother,  rocking  her  child  by  the  fireside,  looked  up 
to  find  a  painted  warrior  with  uplifted  tomahawk  m  the  door-way ; 
and  the  inhabitants  of  many  a  burning  village  were  scalped  as  they 
fled  at  midnight  from  the  flames. 

As  the  colonies  prospered,  more  white  men  came  from  the  Old 
World,  sometimes  buying  land  from  the  Indians,  sometimes  taking 
it  as  their  right ;  and,  as  the  red  men  saw  themselves  driven  from 
their  hunting-grounds,  and  their  forests  cleared  by  the  axe  of  the  "  pale 
faces,"  their  fear  and  dislike  grew  into  bitter  hatred.  Councils  of 
war  were  held,  leagues  were  made  among  the  tribes,  and  the  warfare 
became  terrible.  But  resistance  was  vain  ;  and,  weakened  by  feuds 
and  jealousies  among  themselves,  they  decreased  rapidly  in  number. 

Questions.  —  What  weapons  did  the  Indians  use  ?  What  was  their  mode  of  warfare  ? 
What  were  the  characteristic  traits  of  this  people  ?  How  did  the  .Indians  receive  the 
whites  ?    What  difficulties  grew  up  ? 


The  Pequods,  Mohegans,  and  other  tribes  conspicuous  in  the  early 
history  of  the  colonies- soon  perished;  and,  as  the  settlers  advanced 
westward,  the  natives  retreated  before  them. 

After  a  time  the  Atlantic  colonies  rebelled  against  the  English 
government,  established  their  independence,  and  were  recognized  as 
the  American  nation,  occupying  the  central  portion  of  the  continent. 
The  white  population  gradually  extended  over  the  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  the  Creeks,  Seminoles,  and  other  Indian  tribes  disap- 
peared entirely,  or  retired  to  the  unsettled  regions  of  the  far  West, 
where  the  roving  Apaches  and  many  other  tribes  still  commit  their 
depredations  and  occasionally  massacre  an  emigraut  party.  A  few 
tribes  have  become  more  or  less  civilized,  and  are  protected  by  our 
government ;  but,  as  a  race,  they  have  shown  a  strong  dislike  to  the 
customs  and  occupations  of  civilized  life,  and  seem  to  be  unable  to 
bear  its  restraints  and  confinement. 

POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

North  America  now  comprises  :  —  Greenland,  belonging  to  the 
Danes  ;  Alaska,  in  the  northwest,  formerly  owned  by  Russia,  but 
purchased  by  the  United  States  ;  British  America,  including  all  the 
northern  portion  of  the  continent,  still  in  possession  of  the  English  ; 
the  United  States,  or  central  belt  between  the  twenty-fifth  and  forty- 
ninth  parallels ;  and  Mexico  and  Central  America,  occupied  by 
descendants  of  the  Spaniards  who,  like  the  Americans,  became 
independent  of  the  mother-country,  and  formed  republican  govern- 
ments. 

SUMMARY. 

In  1492  Columbus  made  his  first  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  dis- 
covered the  West  Indies,  and  afterward  the  coast  of  South  America. 

The  Spaniards  continued  the  exploration  of  South  America,  the 
West  Indies,  and  Mexico,  and  made  one  settlement  at  St.  Augustine 
in  Florida. 

The  French  and  English  explored  the  northeast  coast  of  North 
America.  The  French  took  possession  of  the  region  along  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  English  claimed  the  land  from  Canada  to  Florida. 

In  1607  the  first  permanent  English  colony  was  established  at 
Jamestown,  Virginia,  by  a  company  of  merchants  and  adventurers 
called  the  London  Company. 

In  1620  the  second  English  colony  was  established  at  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts,  by  the  Pilgrims,  a  company  of  English  exiles,  who 
had  been  persecuted  at  home  on  account  of  their  religious  opinions. 

In  1608  the  French  made  a  permanent  settlement  at  Quebec,  and 
afterward  extended  their  colonies  along  the  St  Lawrence.  But  later, 
these  French  colonies  came  into  possession  of  the  English,  and  now 
form  a  part  of  British  America. 

The  natives  inhabiting  America  when  the  Europeans  arrived,  were 
various  tribes  of  copper-colored  savages,  who  wore  skins,  dwelt  in 
wigwams,  or  pointed  huts  of  bark  and  mats,  and  lived  chiefly  by 
hunting. 

At  first  they  were  friendly  to  the  whites,  but  soon  began  to  resist 
their  claims  to  the  country,  —  burning  villages,  slaying  women  and 
children,  and  keeping  up  continual  warfare  with  the  colonists. 

Few  of  the  Indians  have  ever  J^ecome  civilized,  and  the  tribes  per- 
ished or  retired  westward  as  the  white  settlements  spread  inland. 

Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  English  colo- 
nies, which  had  spread  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  to  Florida, 
became  dissatisfied  with  the  British  government,  because  of  unjust 

Questions.  —  What  became  of  the  Indians  ?    What  is  their  present  condition  ?  ■ 
What  political  divisions  does  North  America  now  comprise  ? 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


35 


taxation  ;  and  their  principal  men,  having  met  in  Congress,  declared 
the  independence  of  the  colonies  in  1776,  and  their  determination  to 
separate  from  England. 

After  a  revolutionary  war  of  eight  years,  the  English  gave  up  the 
contest,  and  the  colonies  were  henceforth  recognized  as  the  United 
States  of  America,  and  formed  a  republican  government. 

At  the  time  of  the  revolution  there  were  only  thirteen  States  in  the 
Union,  but  the  population  has  increased  rapidly,  and  now  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States  occupies  all  the  central  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

The  Spanish  colonists,  after  settling  Mexico  and  Central  America, 

[Take  the  Study  of  the  Map  of  North  America  here. 


also  rebelled  against  the  home  government  and  became  independent 
of  Spain.  Their  descendants  in  Mexico  are  now  known  as  the  Mex- 
ican people,  retaining  the  Spanish  language  and  customs.  Central 
America  is  at  present  divided  into  five  republics,  and  one  English 
colony. 

•  British  America  includes  the  former  French  colonies  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  all  the  region  north  of  the  United  States  except  Alaska. 

Greenland,  the  island  or  peninsula  in  the  northeast,  belongs  to  the 
Danes. 

Alaska,  formerly  belonging  to  Kussia,  was  purchased  by  the  United 
States  in  1867. 

(See  page  37.)] 


POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 


GEEENLAND. 

Area  over  700,000  squa,re  miles. 

While  the  French  and  English  colonies  were  growing  up  south  of 
Newfoundland,  explonitions  were  made  still  farther  north.  Navigat- 
ors entered  the  strait  between  the  barren,  rugged  cliffs  of  Labrador 
and  the  mountainous,  deeply  indented  shore  of  Greenland  ;  and,  sail- 
ing northward,  found  a  dreary,  arctic  region  of  bare  rocks  and  per- 
petual ice  and  snow,  overshadowed  a  large  part  of  the  year  by  the 
long  twilight  and  night  of  the  polar  winter.  Though  much  of  this 
region  is  uninhabitable,  they  found  some  parts  of  Greenland  and  Labra- 
dor thinly  peopled  by  the  Esquimaux,  who  were  clothed  in  skins, 
repulsive  in  appc.irance,  and  of  uncleanly  habits. 

The  English  navigators,  intent  upon  discovering  a  passage  through 
these  northern  so:is  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  made  various  unsuccessful 
arctic  voyages  ;  claimed  the  northern  portions  of  the  continent  for 
Great  Britain,  and  gave  names  to  the  barren,  uninhabitable  islands  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  attempted  no  colonies  on  its  unpromising  shores. 

The  Danes  and  Norwegians,  however,  made  small  settlements  on 
the  west  coast  of  Greenland  ;  but  their  Arctic  possessions,  except  for 
the  fisheries,  which  are  of  considerable  value,  have  been  of  little  im- 
portance to  them.  Fine  cod  and  herring  are  abundant,  and  the  Green- 
land whale-fisheries  have  been  famous  for  many  years  ;  but  the  great 
Greenland  plateau  has  proved  quite  useless  for  any  purposes  of  colon- 
ization, or  general  improvement,  and  remains  now  what  it  was  to  the 
early  adventurers.  Vast  numbers  of  seals  frequent  the  shores  ;  foxes 
and  polar  bears  roam  hungrily  over  wastes  of  snow  and  ice,  and  eider- 
ducks,  with  otlicr  water-fowl,  abound  on  the  rocky  coasts.  For  a 
little  while  in  midsummer,  when  the  sun  is  farthest  north  of  the  equa- 
tor, the  slanting  rays  have  sufficient  force  in  the  southern  parts  to 
produce  a  few  small  plants  and  mosses  ;  and  the  more  sheltered  of  the 
numerous  fiords  on  the  west  coast  are  scantily  bordered  by  stunted 
birches.  Farther  north,  all  trace  of  vegetation  disappears  in  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow  and  ice,  where  no  navigator  has  ever  fol- 
lowed the  coast  far  enough  to  determine  certainly  whether  Green- 
land is  an  island  or  a  peninsula,  though  the  former  is  probable. 

The  interior  is  wholly  unexplored,  and  a  strong  current  along  the 
east  coast  prevents  the  approach  of  vessels  on  that  side.  In  winter 
the  cold  is  intense  ;  and  even  in  summer  the  little  plants  come  up  al- 

Questions.  —  What  kind  of  country  ilid  the  early  explorers  find  north  of  Labra- 
dor ?  Who  inhabited  that  cold  region  ?  Wliat  land  did  the  English  claim  ?  Where 
and  by  whom  were  settlements  made  ?  What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  Greenland  ? 
Describe  the  country,  plants,  and  animals. 


most  from  beneath  the  snow  ;  the  glaciers  glitter  on  the  heights  ; 
and,  from  time  to  time,  huge  masses  of  ice,  accumulated  during  the 
winter,  partially  melt  at  their  bases,  and,  plunging  over  into  the 
water,  move  slowly  with  the  southern  current  until  they  disappear 
in  warmer  waters. 

The  native  Esquimaux  live  in  little  hovels  made  of  earth  and  blocks 
of  snow,  with  only  one  low  entrance.  They  dress  wholly  in  skins  or 
furs,  and  eat  fish,  boar's  meat,  and  oil,  but  chiefly  the  fat  or  blubber 
of  the  whale  and  seal,  of  which  they  are  very  fond  ;  for,  while  the 
inhabitants  of  warm  countries  require  but  little  meat,  and  live  chiefly 
on  fruits  and  vegetables,  the  people  of  these  high  latitudes  need  much 
animal  food  to  keep  up  the  natural  warmth  of  the  body.  The  prop- 
erty of  an  Esquimaux  consists  of  a  canoe  and  a  light  sled,  made  of 
whalebone  and  skin,  a  team  of  dogs,  a  good  supply  of  skins  for  him- 
self and  family,  and  a  store  of  dried  fish  and  oil  for  the  long  winter. 

The  few  summer  weeks  are  passed  in  laying  in  skins  and  provisions 
for  winter  use,  either  by  spearing  seals  from  their  canoes,  or  making 
long  hunting  expeditions  over  the  ice  with  dog-sleds.  As  the  long 
winter  comes  on,  tliey  take  refuge  much  of  the  time  in  their  huts, 


Esquimaux  Hut. 

which  are  usually  crowded  with  men,  women,  and  children.  One 
would  scarcely  expect  to  suffer  from  heat  in  this  region  of  severe 
cold,  but  in  an  unventilated  Esquimaux  hovel,  odorous  with  half-cured 
skins,  rancid  oil,  and  smoke  from  the  burning  lamp  which  serves  for 
light,   heat,  and  cooking,   the   atmosphere  is  not  only   warm,   but 


Questions.  —  What  are  icebergs  ?    Describe  the  Esquimaux  and  their  manner  of 
living.     Of  what  does  the  property  of  an  Esquimaux  consist  ?    How  is  the  summer 
?    The  winter  ?    What  are  their  dwellings  ? 


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NORTH  AMERICA. 


37 


quite  overpowering  to  strangers.  While  in-doors  the  natives  need 
little  clothing,  yet  they  never  step  outside  without  numerous  fur 
wrappings.  In  severe  seasons  they  often  find  it  very  hard  to  get 
food,  and  here  and  there  the  half-ruined  huts  of  a  deserted  village 
show  that  the  inhabitants  have  perished,  or  dispersed  to  more  favor- 
able neighborhoods.  Such  a  life  does  not  tend  to  refinement,  and  the 
straight,  coarse  hair  of  the  Esquimaux  hangs  over  round,  heavy- 
looking  faces,  not  at  all  prepossessing.  They  have  little  idea  of  right 
and  wrong,  and  have  no  words  in  their  language  to  signify  dirt  or 
neatness. 

The  first  establishments  on  the  west  coast  of  Greenland  were  made 
chiefly  by  Norwegian  missionaries,  who  have  endured  a  hard  life  of 
exile  and  privation,  in  order  to  teach  the  Esquimaux.  The  little 
mission  villages  consist  of  a  few  poor  houses,  and  one  larger  build- 
ing for  church  and  school ;  and  are  inhabited  by  the  families  of  the 
missionaries,  a  few  traders  or  agents,  and  such  of  the  Esquimaux 
as  have  been  reclaimed  from  a  savage  life.  Nothing  could  be  more 
simple  and,  as  it  seems  to  us,  more  comfortless  than  their  lives. 
They  build  their  houses  of  drift-wood  cast  ashore  by  wave  and  cur- 
rent, and  cultivate  a  few  of  the  most  hardy  vegetables,  but  live 
chiefly  tipon  fish  and  meat,  obtaining  some  clothing,  grain,  etc.,  from 
the  Danish  vessels  that  visit  the  coast  for  cargoes  of  seal-skins,  oil, 
fish,  whalebone,  and  eider-down. 

[Continued  on  page  38.] 

STUDY  OF  THE  MAP  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Area  nearly  9,000,000  square  miles. 

[After  looking  out  upon  the  map  the  physical  features,  as  indicated  in  the  following 
lesson,  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  give  the  entire  account  by  referring  to  an  outliHC 
map  or  blackboard  sketch.     The  green  color  on  the  physical  maps  indicates  lowlands.] 

Position.  —  North  America  is  the  northern  division  of  the  Western  Continent ; 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic,  on  the 
southwest  and  west  by  the  Pacific.  It  is  only  connected  with  South  America  by 
the  narrow  isthmus  of  Panama. 

Climate.  —  Extending  through  more  than  70°  of  latitude,  the  continent  in- 
cludes all  varieties  of  climate,  —  tropical,  subtropical,  temperate,  and  frigid. 

Form.  —  The  form  of  the  outline  is  somewhat  like  a  triangle,  with  the  point 
southward,  and  the'  broad  base  toward  the  north.  The  southern,  or  tropical  por- 
tion is  comparatively  small,  only  the  narrow  point  of  the  triangle  being  south  of 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  The  great  central  mass  lies  within  the  temperate  zone, 
and  the  broad  base  of  the  triangle  extends  far  into  the  polar  region.  The  north- 
western extremity  is  only  separated  from  Asia  by  Behring  Strait. 

The  coast  line  is  quite  irregular,  being  broken  on  the  east  by  BafBn  Bay,  Hud- 
son Bay,  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  many  smaller  indentations; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Gulf  of  California,  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  and  otliers. 
North  of  50°  the  coast  is  fringed  by  numerous  inlets,  rocks,  and  small  islets. 

Islands.' —  1.  A  group  of  large  islands  in  the  cold,  almost  unexplored  region 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

2.  Newfoundland,  east  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  with  smaller  islands  near  by. 

3.  Bermudas,  a  group  of  small  islands  off  the  eastern  coast. 

4.  Bahamas,  off  the  southeast  extremity  of  Florida. 

5.  The  West  Indies,  a  large  group  north  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

6.  Vancouver  Island,  near  the  Pacific  coast,  on  the  fiftieth  parallel. 

7.  Queen  Charlotte,  Sitka,  and  others,  farther  north. 

Capes.  —  On  the  east  coast  are  Cape  Farewell,  the  southern  point  of  Green- 
land ;  Cape  Rice,  the  southern  point  of  Newfoundland ;  Cape  Sable,  the  south- 
ern point  of  Nova  Scotia ;  Cape  Cod  ;  Cape  Hatteras ;  and  Cape  Sable,  the 
southern  point  of  Florida.  On  the  west  coast  are  Cape  Corrientes,  Cape  St. 
Lucas,  and  Cape  Mendocino. 

Mountains.  —  1.  A  vast  mountain-system,  sometimes  called  the  Cordilleras, 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  first  Norwegian  settlers  ?  Describe  their  vil- 
l.iges.     Huw  is  trade  carried  on,  and  what  is  exported  from  Greenland  ? 


extends  through  the  western  part  of  the  continent.  It  consists  of  several  ranges 
with  high  plateaus  between.    Popocatapetl,  17,717  feet,  is  probably  the  highest  peak. 

The  whole  mountain-system  between  Alaska  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  was 
formerly  called  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain ;  but  this  name  is  now  apphed  only  to 
the  most  eastern  range. 

The  Coast  Range  rises  directly  from  the  Pacific  coast. 

Between  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
which,  north  of  the  Columbia  River,  takes  the  name  of  Cascade  Mountains. 

The  Sierra  Madre  runs  through  Mexico  and  continues  throughout  Central 
America,  interspersed  with  volcanoes. 

Between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Rocky  Mountains  are  various  transverse 
ridges,  enclosing  plateaus  which  are  often  barren  and  dreary,  and  sometimes  as 
destitute  of  water  and  vegetation  as  the  deserts  of  Africa  or  Asia. 

Between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  Range,  however,  there  are  rich,  beau- 
tiful valleys,  where  the  climate  is  mild  and  vegetation  luxuriant. 

In  Mexico  the  ranges  rise  both  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
forming  a  central  plateau. 

2.  Nearly  parallel  with  the  Atlantic  coast  runs  the  Appalachian  Mountain  sys- 
tem, extending  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
These  mountains  are  much  lower  than  tie  western  ranges,  seldom  rising  above 
3,000  or  4,000  feet,  except  in  North  Carolina  and  New  Hampshire. 

3.  South  of  the  fiftieth  parallel  a  slight  elevation  runs  across  the  continent, 
forming  a  water-shed  between  the  rivers  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  those  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.     The  sources  of  the  St.  Lawrence  are  on  its  southern  slope. 

Lowlands.  —  1.  The  great  central  plain,  divided  by  the  water-shed  into  the 
basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  northern  lowlands  around  the  Mackenzie  River 
and  Hudson  Bay. 

2.  The  Atlantic  slope,  between  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  ocean,  ex- 
tending from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Florida. 

3.  The  low  coast-belt  along  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
River-systems.  —  1.  Flowing  northward  from  the  central  water-shed  are  the 

Mackenzie,  opening  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  the  Nelson,  and  other  streams, 
flowing  into  Hudson  Bay. 

2.  The  St.  Lawrence,  a  large  river  flowing  northeastward  into  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  outlet  for  the  great  lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario. 
These  are  the  largest  fresh-water  lakes  in  the  world,  and  are  navigable  for  large 
vessels  and  steamers. 

3.  The  Atlantic  rivers,  rising  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  flowing  across 
the  Atlantic  slope  into  the  ocean,  most  of  them  taking  a  southeasterly  course. 

4.  The  great  Mississippi,  which  rises  near  the  centre  of  the  continent,  and 
flows  southward  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  receiving  from  the  Rocky  Mountains 
the  waters  of  the  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Red  Rivers,  and  from  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  the  Ohio  and  its  branches. 

5.  Farther  south,  the  Rio  Grande,  flowing  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

6.  The  slope  is  so  sudden  from  the  Coast  Range  to  the  Pacific  that  no  long 
streams  flow  from  its  western  declivity.  The  one  large  river  breaking  through 
the  mountains  to  the  Pacific  is  the  Columbia. 

The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  (see  map  of  the  United  States)  flow, 
the  one  south  and  the  other  north,  through  the  long,  narrow  valley  between 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Range,  and  empty  together  into  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco. 

Farther  south  the  Colorado  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  flows  into  the 
Gulf  of  California. 

Far  northward  the  Yukon  flows  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  through  Alaska  into 
Behring  Strait. 

MAP   QUESTIONS. 

What  are  the  boundaries  of  North  America  ?  In  what  zones  does  it  lie  ?  Between 
what  parallels  and  meridian.s  ?  What  bays  and  gulfs  along  the  Atlantic  coast  ?  Along 
the  Pacific  coast  ?  Where  is  Cape  Farewell  ?  Cape  Sable  ?  Cape  Cod  ?  Cape  Hat- 
teras ?  Cape  St.  Lucas  ?  Cape  Mendocino  ?  AVliat  two  mountain  systems  are  there  ? 
What  three  ranges  in  the  western  system  ?  AVhere  is  the  Appalachian  system  ?  AVhere 
is  the  central  water-shed  ?  What  is  the  course  of  the  Mackenzie  River  ?  Of  the  St. 
Lawrence  ?  Of  the  Mississippi  ?  Rio  Grande  ?  Colorado  ?  Columbia  ?  AVhat  are 
the  principal  river-systems  ?  What  are  the  principal  branches  of  the  Mississippi  on 
the  east  ?    On  the  west  ?    What  islands  belong  to  North  America  ? 


OUR  WORLD. 


Mission  ViUnge, 

Julianshaab,  the  most  southern  settlement,  has  not  more  than  fifty 
white  inhabitants.  Lichtenfels  is  the  residence  of  the  Danish  gov- 
ernor. Upernavik  is  important  as  the  most  northern  station,  beyond 
which  there  are  no  other  hnman  habitations  except  a  few  Esquimaux 
huts. 

By  means  of  sledge-expeditions  the  northern  coast  of  the  con- 
tinent has  been  determined,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  with  its  islands, 
mapped  out ;  but  no  vessels  can  sail  through  the  frozen  channels,  and 
the  extreme  polar  regions  remain  unexplored. 

Yet  the  idea  of  discovering  a  navigable  passage  through  these 
waters,  and  of  reaching  an  open  polar  sea,  has  never  been  aban- 
doned ;  men  are  still  found  ready  to  brave  the  sufferings  and  dangers 
of  an  arctic  expedition,  and  the  recent  voyages  of  Franklin,  Kane, 
Hayes,  etc.,  are  familiar  to  many  young  readers. 

Exploring  Expeditions.  —  A  vessel  sailing  from  one  of  our  north- 
ern ports  for  an  arctic  voyage  is  loaded  with  coal  and  provisions  for 


Iceberg. 


^ 


Questions.  —  Where  is  Julianshaab  ?    Lichtenfels  ?     Upernavik  1    On  which  coast 
are  the  settlements  ?    Give  an  account  of  an  arctic  exploring  expedition. 


one  or  two  years,  and  usually  stops  at  the  Greenland  settlements  to 
obtain  a  supply  of  skins  for  garments,  a  team  of  dogs,  and  perhaps  an 
Esquimaux  hunter  or  interpreter.  Thence  the  explorers  enter  upon 
the  unknown  world  of  glaciers,  _/Zoes,  or  field  ice,  and  majestic  bergs, 
or  ice-mountains,  rising  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  water.  After  the 
summer  of  July  and  August,  with  uninterrupted  day,  the  twilight 
lengthens,  the  cold  increases,  the  vessel  crashes  and  quivers  through 
the  thickening  ice  ;  and,  struggling  onward  yet  a  little  farther,  is  at 
last  held  fast  in  the  frozen  mass,  not  to  be  released  for  months,  while 
the  stillness  and  darkness  of  the  long  winter  night  gradually  settle 
over  the  adventurers.  It  is  not,  however,  entirely  dark,  but  a 
weird,  gloomy  night,  often  fantastically  brightened  by  a  wonderful 
crown  of  rosj'  light  arching  the  heavens,  fitful,  fiery  flashes,  or 
crosses  and  globes  of  gleaming  silvery-white. 

All  arctic  voyagers  are  struck  with  the  beauty  and  brilliancy  of 
these  northern  lights,  or  aurora  borealis ;  for,  though  we  sometimes 
see  them  here,  they  are  not  nearly  so  bright  or  varied. 

SUMMARY. 

Greenland,  a  great,  dreary  country  near  the  north  pole,  belongs  to 
the  Danes,  and  is  chiefly  valuable  to  them  for  its  fisheries.  The  cli- 
mate is  intensely  cold,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  country  barren  and 
mountainous,  covered  with  glaciers,  or  perpetual  ice  and  snow.  The 
vegetation  consists  of  stunted  birches  in  the  southern  part,  and  during 
the  short  summer  a  few  plants  and  mosses.  The  northern  part  is  un- 
inhabitable. The  southern  part  is  inhabited  by  Esquimaux,  savages 
who  dress  in  furs,  eat  oil,  fish,  and  whale-blubber,  and  live  in  hovels 
of  earth  and  snow.  Missionaries  have  taught  some  of  these  Esqui-' 
giaux  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  villages.  The  Danish  settlements 
consist  of  a  few  wooden  houses,  and  do  not  increase  much  in  size  or 
importance.  Vessels  come  and  go  between  Greenland  and  Denmark, 
bringing  clothing,  grain,  etc.,  and  taking  back  fish,  oil,  seal-skins, 
whalebone,  and  eider-down. 


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OUE  WORLE. 


BRITISH  AMERICA. 

'^  DESCRIPTION. 

The  country.  —  British  America  occupies  all  the  northern  part  of 
the  continent  except  Greenland  and  Alaska,  including  the  extensive 
region  originally  claimed  by  the  English  explorers,  and  the  southeast 
provinces,  formerly  in  possession  of  the  French.  The  northern  shores, 
bordering  on  the  Arctic  Ocean,  are  cold,  barren,  and  uninhabitable, 
like  the  neighboring  islands ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  country, 
though  broken  and  even  mountainous,  is  fertile,  well  watered  by 
beautiful  lakes  and  rivers,  and  suitable  for  agriculture,  especially  in 
some  of  the  southern  and  western  parts,  where  the  climate  is  milder 
than  that  of  New  England.  As  yet,  however,  the  greater  part  of 
this  vast  region  is  unsettled  and  covered  by  forests,  where  a  few 
tribes  of  Indians  still  hunt  the  deer  and  the  beaver. 

As  Europeans  found  it  profitable  to  send  vessels  on  long  voyages 
to  the  Northern  seas  for  fish  and  seal-skins,  so  hunters  and  traders  have 
explored  the  remotest  parts  of  this  wild  region  to  obtain  the  valuable 
furs  of  the  sable,  ermine,  marten,  beaver,  and  other  fur-bearing  an- 
imals which  abound  in  these  forests.    Long  ago  an  English  company. 


Beaver. 

known  as  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  obtained  a  grant  or  charter,  giv- 
ing it  a  certain  degree  of  authority  over  the  immense  region  about  the 
Bay,  from  Canada  northward,  and  extending  later  «ven  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 

Gradually  forts  or  trading-stations  have  been  established  along  the 
shore  of  the  Bay,  and  throughout  the  countrjj^  where  agents  are  sent 
to  trade  for  furs  with  the  Indians  and  Canadian  hunters  from  "t^e  bor- 
der settlements  ;  who,  after  a  season's  hunt  through  the  pathless 
forests,  leave  their  collection  of  skins  at  the  nearest  "  Fort,"  usually 
receiving  in  exchange  cloth,  tobacco,  powder,  beads,  etc.,  kept  on 
hand  for  the  purpose.  From  Canada  to  the  Arctic  shores,  and  from 
Hudson  Bay  to  the  Pacific,  the  only  settlements  are  these  stations  of 
the  fur-traders,  —  small  clearings  in  the  wilderness,  from  fifty  to  two 
hundred  miles  apart,  with  half  a  dozen  wooden  storehouses  and  cabins, 
a  dozen  men,  and  occasionally  women  and  children.  The  Company 
have  vessels  trading  along  the  coasts,  bringing  goods  from  London, 
and  carrying  back  furs. 

The  southwest  province  of  British  Columbia,  lying  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  has  all  the  natural  advantages  of  good  soil,  min- 
erals, lumber,  harbors  for  shipping,  and  the  mild  climate  that  prevails 
on  the  Pacific  coast.    And  now  that  the  intercourse  between  California 


Qnestions.  —  What  does  British  America  include?  Describe  the  country.  By 
whom  is  the  greater  part  inhabited  ?  What  is  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  ?  What 
and  where  are  the  forts  or  trading-stations  ?  What  is  the  appearance  of  one  of 
these  stations  ?    What  is  said  of  British  Columbia  ? 


and  the  civilized  world  has  so  enlarged,  the  population  of  these  north- 
ern provinces  will  increase  rapidly. 

New  Westminster,  the  capital  of  British  Columbia,  is  on  Frazer 
River,  where  there  are  valuable  gold-mines. 

The  port  of  Victoria,  on  Vancouver  Island,  in  easy  communication 
with  California  and  the  Sandwich  Islands,  is  a  town  of  some  size, 
with  considerable  trade  and  ship-building.  The  island  is  favorably 
situated,  with  good  harbors,  and  contains  coal-beds,  lumber,  and  good 
building-stone. 

The  fine  tract  of  country  around  the  Saskatchewan  offers  many  ad- 
vantages to  settlors,  and  is  becoming  of  more  and  more  importance. 

The  provinces  of  British  Columbia  and  Manitoba,  the  latter  includ- 
ing the  tract  of  country  around  Manitoba  Lake,  and  bordering  upon 
the  United  States,  were  in  1871  admitted  into  the  Dominion  of 
Canada. 

The  eastern  provinces.  —  Along  the  St.  Lawrence  River  are  the 
southeast  provinces,  originally  settled  by  the  French,  but  now  in  pos- 
session of  the  English,  namely,  the  four  provinces,  Ontario,  Quebec, 
New  Bninswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  with  Cape  Breton  Island,  which, 
in  1867,  were  formed  into  the  "Dominion  of  Canada,"  and  the  two 
island  provinces  of  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward. 

Ontario  and  Quebec.  —  These  two  provinces  extend  along  the 
river  and  lakes,  from  the  Strait  of  Belleisle,  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  Labrador,  almost  to  the  head  of  Lake  Superior. 

Surface.  — The  country  rises  gently  from  the  river  toward  a  slight 
ridge  running  along  the  northern  boundary  of  the  province,  which 
forms  a  water-shed  between  the  rivers  of  Hudson  Bay  and  those  flow- 
ing into  the  St.  Lawrence.  Much  of  the  province  is  still  entirely  un- 
settled, a  continuation  of  the  wild  north  country,  but  the  soil  is 
usually  good,  and,  where  the  forests  have  been  cleared,  all  the  com- 
mon grains  are  cultivated. 

The  climate  is  cold,  but  not  too  severe  for  health  and  comfort. 
The  ground  is  covered  with  snow  during  the  most  of  the  winter,  and 
sleighing  is  the  common  mode  of  travel.     In  the  southern  part  are 

V 


populous  agricultural  districts  which  export  grain,  and  year  by  year 
the  farm-lands  gain  upon  the  forests. 

Towns,  villages,  and  cities  have  grown  up  along  the  river  and  lake 
shores,  which  are  open  to  the  Atlantic  through  the  St.  Lawrence.  By 
this  extensive  water  communication  the  produce  of  the  surrounding 
country  —  grain,  lumber,   furs,  and   fish  —  is   exported  profitably. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Vancouver  Island  ?  What  is  another  valuable  part 
of  the  country  ?  'WTiat  provinces  were  originally  settled  by  the  French  ?  Which 
were  formed  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  when  ?  What  other  provinces  were 
admitted  in  1871  ?  What  is  the  extent  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  (formerly  Canada)  ? 
What  is  the  appearance  and  condition  of  the  country?  Where  are  the  cities,  and 
what  are  their  advantages  for  trade  ? 


BRITISH  AMERICA. 


41 


view  fuiioQg  the  Thousand  Islauds. 

The  river  is  navip^able  as  far  as  Montreal ;  and,  by  means  of  canals 
skirting  the  rapids  above  that  city,  vessels  can  pass  up  the  river, 
through  the  Lake  of  a  Thousand  Isles,  into  Lake  Ontario. 
Jr  Ontario,  separated  from  Quebec  by  the  Ottawa  Eiver,  is  the  more 
western  and  less  settled  of  the  two  provinces.  The  old  French  popu- 
lation scarcely  extended  so  far  inland,  and  the  inhabitants  are  mostly 
English,  and  the  settlements  comparatively  recent.  The  towns  are 
busy  and  thriving,  but  not  large  ;  the  people  being  employed  chiefly 
in  .agriculture. 

Ottawa,  on  Ottawa  River,  is  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
and  residence  of  the  Governor-General  of  the  provinces,  who  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  British  government.  The  provinces  elect  their  own 
members  for  the  parliament  held  at  Ottawa. 

Toronto,  the  largest  city  of  Ontario,  is  situated  on  Lake  Ontario, 
with  a  fine  harbor  and  extensive  lake  trade. 

The  other  principal  places  are  Kingston  and  Hamilton,  also  on  the 
lake. 

The  towns  and  farming  population  are  collected-  in  the  southern 
part,  near  the  lakes  and  river,  and  one  need  not  travel  far  to  get  be- 
yond the  region  of  civilization.  Indian  encampments  are  no  uncom- 
mon sight,  and  parties  often  come  into  the  towns  to  sell  their  mocca- 
sons,  curiously  woven  baskets,  and  varieties  of  bead-work. 

Quebec.  —  The  province  of  Quebec  extends  from  the  Ottawa  Eiver 
to  the  Strait  of  Belleisle,  including  all  the  lower  valley  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  The  country,  though  nowhere  very  high,  is  broken  and 
hilly,  the  lakes  and  waterfalls  numerous,  and  the  scenery  often  fine, 
particularly  along  the  rivers.  The  Saguenay,  which  is  next  in  size 
to  the  Ottawa,  and  famed  for  the  grandeur  of  its  scenery,  has  become 
a  favorite  resort  for  tourists,  and  excursion  boats  ply  regularly 
during  the  summer.  The  falls  of  Montmorenci  are  also  much  fre- 
quented. •Iii.this  part  of  Canada  the  names,  population,  and  histori- 
cal associations  are  chiefly  French.     In  many  places  the  dwellings 


Questions.  —  Give  a  general  description  of  Ontario  ?  Wliat  and  where  is  Ottawa  ? 
Wliat  and  wliere  are  the  other  chief  towns  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Indians  ?  What  is 
the  extent  of  the  province  of  Quchec  ?  What  is  said  of  the  country  1  In  what  respect 
does  Quebec  differ  from  the  province  of  Ontario  ? 


have  a  quaint,  foreign  appearance,  and  few  farm- 
houses are  without  some  cherished  relic  of  early 
times,  —  the  wliite  Norman  cap,  or  the  silver  chain 
and  cross  that  came  over  with  the  French  peasant 
two  hundred  years  ago.  Canadian  French  is  very 
generally  spoken,  and  most  of  the  people  are 
Catholics. 

Cities.  — The  cities,  which  are  all  on  or  near  the 
St.  Lawrence,  exhibit  a  mixture  of  French  and 
English  peculiarities  quite  striking  to  an  American 
from  the  other  side  of  the  river,  though  in  many 
respects  bearing  the  stamp  of  the  New  World. 

Montreal,  a  large,  handsome  city,  is  situated  on 
a  hilly  island  in  the  St.  Lawrorice,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Ottawa,  where  it  commands  an  immense  trade  ; 
collecting  the  produce  of  the  neighboring  country, 
and  exporting  more  grain  than  any  other  American 
city  except  New  York.     The  streets   are  wide  : 
many  of  the  houses  handsome,  and  built  of  gray 
stone.      The    principal    street,    containing    ware- 
houses,  stores,    etc.,   runs   from   north   to   south, 
near  the  river,  which  is  bordered  by  a  long  line  of 
quays  of  hewn  stone,  with  a  broad  esplanade  be- 
tween the  river  and  the  houses.     In  the  higher 
part  of  the  city,  rising  with  the  hillside,  are  the  handsomest  dwell- 
ings  and  the  more  conspicuous  buildings,  —  the  convent  of  Notre 
Dame,  the  cathedral,  the  hospital,  and  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice. 

The  city  tells  its  own  st(<ry  :  —  side  by  side  stand  the  secluded  old 
convent  and  the  modern  commercial  store  ;  and  passing  one  another 
in  the  streets  are  the  red-coated  English  soldier,  the  French  monk 
with  his  cowl,  the  peasant  in  homespun  gray,  the  American  citizen, 
and  the  Indian  in  his  blanket.  , 

The  manufactures  are  chiefly  iron-castings,  soap,  and  candles.  Ship- 
building is  also  carried  on  ;  and  during  most  of  the  year  the  river  is 
crowded  with  vessels,  barges,  scows,  and  timJiJer-rafts ;  but  from  the 
first  of  December  to  the  middle  of  May  it  te^losed  with  ice. 

Quebec.  —  It  is  said  that,  in  the  ear^^days  of  discoveries,  as  a 
party  of  French  explorers  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  perceived 
a  sharp  promontory  rising  abruptly  before  them,  the  commander  ex- 
claimed, "  Quel  bee  !  "  that  is  to  say,  "  What  a  beak  !  "  and  Quel 
bee  or  Quebec  it  has  been  called  to  this  day  L^for,  seeing  the  advan- 
tages of  this  natural  fortress,  the  site  wa*~^chosen  for  their  set- 
tlement, >md  in  time  still' further  strengthened  by  artificial  fortifica- 
tions. Long  afterward,  during  a  war  between  France  and  England, 
when  Queljec  had  become  an  important  city,  the  French  felt  them- 
selves secure  on  these  heights ;  but  th^English  commander  Wolfe 
disembarked  from  his  ships  in  the  night,  and  ascending  by  a  steep 
path  to  the  neighboring  plains  of  Abraham,  finally  obtained  posses- 
sion of liite  city. 

The  little  St.  Charles  River,  flowing  into  the  St.  Lawrence  from  the 
north,  leaves  between  it  and  the  larger  river  the  narrow  promontory 
called  Cape  Diamond,  upon  which  Quebec  is  situated,  the  city  consist- 
ing of  a  lower  and  upper  town.  The  Upper  Town  extends  across 
tbe  cape,  rising  abruptly  from  the  St.  Lawrence  in  a  wall  of  rock,  and 
sljjping  toward  the  St.  Charles  ;  and  is  surrounded  by  fortified  walls 
with  five  gates.  Here  are  the  citadel,  parliament  house,  city  hall, 
fashio'riaM&  stores,  finest  houses,  and  hotels.      Tiic  view  from  the 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  cities  ?  Describe  Montreal.  What  is  said  of  the 
manufactures  and  trade  of  Montreal  ?  Describe  the  situation  of  Quebec  City.  How 
is  the  peliinsula  of  Cape  Diamond  formed  ?    What  is  the  Upper  Town  ? 


42 


OUR  WORLD. 


A 


ramparts  is  magnificent ;  —  west  and  south  the  populous  suburbs  of 
St.  Louis  and  St.  John,  with  their  elegant  villas  and  gardens,  extend 
to  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  where  a  monument  commemorates  the 
victory  of  Wolfe  ;  and  on  both  sides  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  as  far  as  the 
eye  can  reach,  stretch  cultivated  fields,  dotted  with  white  cottages. 
Under  the  cliffs  along  the  St.  Charles  lies  the  Lower  Town,  or  busi- 
ness part  of  the  city,  with  its  stores,  warehouses,  and  long  line  of 
quays  and  docks,  where  the  largest  ships  can  find  harbor,  more  than 
three  hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  the  gulf.  The  Lower  and  Upper 
Town  are  connected  by  a  winding  street  and  several  flights  of  steps. 
Aside  from  beautiful  scenery,  Quebec  is  well  worth  seeing  as  the  only 
walled  city  in  America  north  of  Mexico.  It  is  strange  to  us  to  see 
cannon  and  sentinels,  with  bayonets  and  uniforms,  always  at  hand. 

The  fine,  dry  atmosphere  is  healthy,  and  in  it  the  autumn-leaves 
turn  brilliantly  ;  but  the  winters  are  cold,  and  in  the  markets  beef, 
fowls,  and  fish  are  frozen  stifl",  and  milk  is  sold  by  the  pound  like 
lumps  of  ice.  The  river  is  frozen  hard  for  about  three  months.  Fine 
ships  are  built  here,  and  Quebec,  the  centre  of  maritime  commerce  in 
British  America,  is  one  of  the  chief  lumber  and  timber  ports  on  the 
continent.  The  imports  are  chiefly  manufactures  and  groceries  ;  and, 
for  the  use  of  the  Indians,  powder,  guns,  hatchets,  beads,  etc. 

Of  the  smaller  towns  along  the  St.  Lawrence  the  most  important  is 
Three  Rivers,  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  St.  Maurice. 

New  BrunS'VTick.  —  The  province  of  New  Brunswick  has  many 
natural  advantages  and  a  certain  quiet  prosperity.  Branches  of  the 
Appalachian  chain  extend  over  the  northern  part,  making  beautiful 
scenery,  and  the  eastern  coast  is  quite  bold.  Coal  and  iron  are 
found ;  the  fine  forests  supply  lumber,  and  abound  with  deer  and 
beaver;  and  the  waters  are  filled  with  salmon,  cod,  herring,  and 
mackerel.  The  people  are  occupied  in  farming,  fishing,  lumbering, 
and  ship-building.  Flax,  wheat,  and  excellent  potatoes  are  culti- 
vated especially  along  the  rivers.  Scarcely  a  stream  is  without  a 
saw-mill,  and  lumber  is  floated  down  by  the  spring  torrents. 

St.  John,  the  largest  port,  has  a  fine  harbor,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  John  River,  accessible  to  the  largest  vessels  all  the  year.  There 
are  no  other  large  towns,  but  both  banks  of  the  St.  John,  for  more 
than  two  hundred  miles,  are  thickly  lined  with  villages  and  dairy  farms. 

Some  of  the  inhabitants  are  descendants  of  the  old  Acadian  French. 
There  are  also  many  Scotch,  and  both  classes  keep  to  some  degree 
their  national  dress  and  customs,  and  are  little  disposed  to  improve- 
ments. 

Nova  Scotia.  —  Attached  to  the  southeastern  extremity  of  New 
Brunswick  is  the  long,  narrow  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia,  almost  sur- 
rounded by  the  ocean,  and  receiving  the  Atlantic  waves  on  a  bold, 
rocky  coast.  Its  northern  shore  is  washed  by  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
remarkable  for  the  great  height  and  rapid  rise  of  its  tides.  The 
peninsula  is  noted  for  the  variety  of  its  minerals. 

The  inland  surface  is  varied  with  woods,  hills,  and  lakes  ;  and  the 
many  coast-indentations  aiford  fine  harbors  and  deep  sea-basins. 
The  climate  is  tempered  by  the  surrounding  oceanic  atmosphere, 
and,  where  the  land  is  properly  cultivated,  the  farmer  finds  a  com- 
fortable support;  but  there  are  other  more  profitable  occupations. 
Large  flocks  of  sheep  graze  on  the  hillsides  ;  the  coast  towns  carry 
on  extensive  fisheries  ;  and  the  coal-mines  of  Pictou,  in  the  northern 
part,  are  widely  known,  sending  large  exportations  of  coal  to  the 
United  States.  No  manufactures  of  importance  are  exported,  but  the 
peasants  weave  their  own  coarse,  bomeBpun  cloth. 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  Lower  Town  ?  What  is  said  of  the  commerce  of  Quebec  ? 
What  is  said  of  New  Brunswick  ?  What  of  the  occupation  of  the  people  ?  What  of 
the  towns  T    Describe  Nova  Scotia.     What  is  said  of  its  climate  ?    Of  its  mines  1 


On  a  fine  harbor  of  the  east  coast  stands  Halifax,  the  chief  British 
naval  station  in  America ;  and  English  ships  of  war  are  stationed 
there  for  weeks  at  a  time.  The  front  of  the  town  is  lined  with 
wharves,  where  vessels  of  all  kinds  arc  continually  discharging  and 
receiving  cargoes.  Warehouses  rise  beyond  the  wharves  ;  then  one 
row  of  dwellings  above  another,  up  the  hillside  ;  and,  above  the 
whole,  the  signal-posts  of  the  batteries.  The  place  has  a  rather  pe- 
culiar appearance  from  the  variety  in  the  building  and  coloring  of  the 
houses,  which  are  chiefly  of  wood,  painted  white,  pink,  blue,  brown, 
etc.  There  are,  however,  some  handsome  stone-dwellings  in  English 
style. 

Nova  Scotia  exports  to  Great  Britain  rough  timber,  fish,  and  oil ; 
and  to  the'  United  States  coal  and  gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  which 
is  largely  quarried  here  and  in  New  Brunswick. 

This  province  was  the  Acadia  of  the  early  French  colonists.  Here 
came  thrifty  Norman  peasants,  with  their  wooden  shoes  and  simple 
habits,  and  made  for  themselves  homes,  not  wholly  unlike  the  old 
homes  in  France,  —  cosey  little  villages,  surrounded  with  gardens  and 
orchards,  whose  owners  believed  they  had  a  right  to  the  fields  they 
had  reclaimed  from  the  wilderness  ;  but,  war  breaking  out  between 
England  and  France,  the  colonists  joined  in  the  contest,  and  a  com- 
pany of  English  soldiers,  landing  in  the  midst  of  the  harmless  Aca- 
dian peasants,  burned  their  villages,  and  dispersed  in  a  day  the  little 
communities  gathered  through  long  years  of  toil.  Since  then  other 
villages  have  been  built,  other  farms  cultivated,  and  a  busy  popula- 
tion gathered  over  the  whole  country.  , 

Cape  Breton,  a  large  island  near  by,  belongs  to  the  province  of 
Nova  Scotia.  Coal  and  iron  are  abundant  on  the  island,  and  farming 
is  of  considerable  importance ;  but  the  products  of  the  fisheries  are 
the  chief  exports.     Sydney  is  the  most  important  town. 

Here  was  the  old  town  of  Louisburg,  famous  in  colonial  times  as  a 
strong  fortress. 

Prince  Edvraxd  Island  is  noted  as  the  best  fishing-station  of 
these  seas.  The  fisheries  are  mostly  in  the  hands  of  United  States 
fishermen. 

Beside  the  capital,  Charlottetown,  there  are  several  lesser  vil- 
lages. 

Nevrfoundland.  — This  large  island,  though  exceeding  Ireland  in 
size,  is  the  least  promising  in  appearance  of  all  the  provinces,  being 
cold  in  winter  and  wet  in  summer,  and  often  shrouded  in  dense  fogs. 
Its  high,  rocky  coast  looming,  bare  and  dreary,  through  the  mists, 
its  hills  scantily  covered  with  poor  firs  and  birches,  and  its  lowlands 
either  wet  and  marshy  or  overgrown  with  stunted  shrubs  or  heaths, 
do  not  invite  colonization  ;  yet- quite  a  population  has  been  drawn 
by  its  valuable  fisheries.  From  the  earliest  discovery  of  America 
European  fishermen  were  attracted  to  these  shores  by  the  inexhausti- 
ble supply  of  cod  and  mackerel ;  and  the  fisheries  on  the  Banks  of 
Newfoundland  have  become  famous  all  over  the  world. 

The  coast  aflbrds  good  harbors,  aifd  along  the  deep  bays  and  inlets 
are  the  hamlets  of  the  fishermen,  with  their  fishing  craft  secured 
among  the  rocks.  Most  of  the  settlements  are  on  the  small  peninsula 
extending  from  the  southeast  corner. 

St.  John's,  the  capital  and  only  important  town,  has  more  than 
twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  larger  than  most  of  the  other 
island  ports.  There  are  good  farms  in  its  vicinity,  and  goats,  which 
browse  on  the  heaths,  supply  the  people  with  milk. 


Questions.  — What  is  said  of  Halifax  «  What  is  exported  from  Halifax  ?  What 
is  said  of  Cape  Breton  Island  and  its  resources  ?  For  what  is  Prince  Edward  Island 
noted  ?  Describe  the  country  and  climate  of  Newfoundland.  For  what  is  the  island 
valuable  ?    What  is  said  of  its  fisheries  ?    Describe  the  capital. 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


43 


The  Newfoundland  cod  are  not  more  widely  known  than  the  New- 
foundland dogs,  which  are  so  famous  for  their  size,  strength,  beauty, 
and  devotion  to  their  owners. 

OS'  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  are  the  small  French  islands  of 
St.  Pierre,  Miquelon,  and  Little  Miquelon,  or  Langley,  important  as 
fishing-stations 

SUMMARY. 

British  America  occupies  all  the  northern  part  of  the  continent  ex- 
cept Greenland  and  Alaska.  The  Arctic  shores  are  cold  and  barren, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  country  is  covered  with  fine  forests,  and 
is  fit  for  cultivation. 

Much  of  this  vast  region  is  inhabited  only  by  Indians  ;  but  the 
forests  abound  with  the  ermine,  marten,  sable,  beaver,  etc. ;  and  Forts 
or  trading-stations,  connected  with  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  have 
been  established  throughout  the  wilderness,  where  Indians  and  Cana- 
dian hunters  exchange  their  skins  for  blankets,  beads,  powder,  and 
shot.  The  furs  obtained  at  these  stations  are  distributed  through 
other  countries. 

Provinces.  —  British  Columbia  and  Manitoba,  now  admitted  into 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  the  whole  Saskatchewan  Vallej',  have 
the  advantages  of  fertile  soil  and  comparativelj"^  mild  climate,  beside 
the  gold  of  Fraser  River  and  extensive  coal  fields,  and  the  population 
is  rapidly  increasing. 

The  older  provinces  along  the  St.  Lawrence,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  French,  are  much  more  thickly  settled.  All  the  large  cities  and 
towns  are  on  or  near  the  river  and  lakes,  where  the  advantages  for 
trade  are  grcEtt.     All  these  eastern  provinces,  except  the  islands  of 


Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward,  are  included  in  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  and  a  Governor-General  resides  at  Ottawa,  on  Ottawa  River. 

In  Ontario,  the  most  western  of  the  older  provinces,  the  people  are 
occupied  chiefly  in  farming,  and  Montreal  exports  more  grain  than 
any  other  American  city,  except  New  York. 

Quebec,  bordering  on  the  lower  course  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  is  more 
populous,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  descendants  of  the  early 
French  settlers,  and  retain,  in  a  great  measure,  their  language  and 
customs,  giving  a  foreign  character  to  this  part  of  the  country. 

The  coast-provinces  and  islands  are  all  noted  for  extensive  fisheries 
of  herring,  mackerel,  and  cod. 

Newfoundland,  or  the  Grand  Bank  near  by,  is  famous  for  the  most 
valuable  cod-fisheries  in  the  world. 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  export  coal  and  gypsum. 

Beside  the  immense  quantities  of  fish  from  the  islands  and  coast, 
the  inland  provinces  export  lumber,  grain,  and  furs  ;  and  ship-build- 
ing is  extensively  carried  on. 

Cities.  —  Montreal  is  situated  on  an  island  in  the  St.  Lawrence, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Ottawa,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade. 

Quebec,  built  on  the  lofty  peninsula  of  Cape  Diamond,  between  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  little  river  St.  Charles,  is  strongly  fortified,  and 
is  the  only  walled  city  in  America  north  of  Mexico. 

Halifax  rises  on  a  steep  hillside  on  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  has  a 
fine  harbor,  and  is  the  British  naval  station. 

St.  John  is  the  principal  town  of  New  Brunswick. 

St.  John's,  a  busy  place  of  more  than  twenty  thousand  inhabitants, 
is  the  only  large  town  of  Newfoundland ;  most  of  the  settlements  on 
this  barren,  foggy  island  being  mere  fishing-hamlets.      * 


HISTORY 


THE    UNITED 


STATES 


By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  English  settlements 
had  spread  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  con- 
sisted of  thirteen  separate  colonies,  settled  and  chartered  at  difierent 
times,  either  by  new  companies  from  the  Old  World,  or  by  small  par- 
ties of  seceders  from  the  earlier  settlements. 

1.  Massachusetts.  —  Soon  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at 
Plymouth  in  1620,  other  settlements  were  made  at  Saldm  and  Bos- 
ton ;  and  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  about  seventy- 
five  towns  wore  founded,  containing,  altogether,  a  population  of 
nearly  seventy  thousand. 

2.  Ne'W  Hampshire. — ^This  territory  was  granted  to  various  pri- 
vate individuals,  whose  conflicting  claims  caused  many  disputes. 
It  was  for  a  long  time  connected  with  Massachusetts,  but  finally 
became  a  separate  province. 

3.  Connecticut,  at  first  included  in  the  charter  of  the  Plymouth 
Colony,  was  afterward  granted  to  Lord  Say  and  Scle,  and  others  ;  and 
the  trading-stations  early  established  at  New  Haven,  Windsor,  and 
other  places,  became  flourishing  towns. 

4.  Rhode  Island  was  settled  by  Roger  Williams,  who  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  Massachusetts  because  of  peculiar  religious  opinions. 

5.  New  York  was  settled  as  early  as  1614  by  the  Dutch,  who 
claimed  the  country  in  right  of  discoveries  made  by  Henry  Hudson 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  Kewfouiullanil  dogs  ?  What  small  islands  near 
the  coast  ?  How  far  did  the  English  colonies  extend  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  ?      How   was    Massachusetts    founded  1    New    Hampshire  ?      Connecticut  ? 


while  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company.  The  colony 
prospered  for  some  time  under  the  name  of  New  Netherlands  ;  but 
Charles  II.,  refusing  to  recognize  the  Dutch  claim,  bestowed  the  ter- 
ritory upon  his  brother  the  Duke  of  York,  for  whom  it  was  named  ; 
and,  after  some  warfare,  the  Dutch  gave  up  the  colony. 

6.  New  Jersey  was  settled  both  by  Dutch  and  Swedes,  and  was 
for  a  time  attached  to  New  York,  but  became  a  separate  province  in 
1738. 

7.  Delaware  was  settled  first  by  Swedes ;  was  claimed  by  the 
Dutch  ;  belonged  at  one  time  to  New  York,  afterward  to  Pennsylvania ; 
and  finally  became  a  separate  province. 

8.  Maryland  was  granted  by  Charles  I.  to  Lord  Baltimore  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  colony  for  Roman  Catholics,  who  were 
then  persecuted  in  England. 

9.  Pennsylvania  (or  Penn's  woods)  was  bestowed  by  Charles  II. 
upon  the  Quaker,  William  Penn  ;  who,  with  a  conscientiousness  very 
rare  in  those  days,  would  not  claim  the  land  without  buying  it  from 
the  Indians  who  inhabited  the  forests. 

10.  11.  Carolina  was  at  first  included  in  the  Virginian  territory  ; 
but  later  a  large  tract  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  a  company  who 
settled  at  Charleston,  so  named  in  honor  of  the  king.  Long  before 
this  time  Raleigh  had  attempted  to  establish  colonies,  and  some  of 
the  French  Huguenots  had  settled  at  Port  Royal.  In  1729  the 
territory  was  divided  into  the  two  provinces  of  North  and  South 
Carolina. 

Rhode  Island  ?  New  York  ?  New  Jersey  ?  Delaware  ?  Maryland  ?  Pennsylvania  ? 
Carolina  1    When  did  North  and  South  Carolina  become  separate  provinces  ? 


44 


OUR  WORLD. 


12.  Virginia  remained  as  the  original  province,  after  Carolina  was 
separated  from  the  territory,  and  was  afterward  known  as  the  "  Old 
Dominion. '^- 

13  Gedrgia  was  granted,  in  1732,  by  George  II.  to  James  Ogle- 
thorpe and  others,  as  a  refuge  for  destitute  persons. 

These  thirteen  colonies  were,  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, peopled  by  an  industrious,  intelligent  population.  The  first 
difficulties  of  colonization  wore  over,  and  their  labors  and  sufferings 
had  been  rewarded  with  comfortable  homes,  thriving  towns,  and  well- 
cultivated  farms.  The  settlers  of  the  southern  provinces  were  ob- 
taining wealth  from  their  broad,  fertile  acres ;  the  people,  of  New 
England  had  learned  to  supply  the  deficiencies  of  their  less  promising 
soil  and  climate  by  successful  fisheries  and  an  active  trade.  Alto- 
gether the  colonies  had  attained  to  a  condition  of  social  comfort  and 
refinement,  and  were  of  no  little  importance  to  the  mother-country. 

The  colonists,  however,  were  not  wisely  treated  by  the  home  gov- 
ernment ;  and,  though  they  still  considered  themselves  loyal  English 
subjects,  their  patience  had  been  severely  tried  by  unjust  taxes,  inter- 
ference with  their  rights  of  trade,  and  by  the  tyranny  and  mismanage- 
ment of  governors  who  came  over  from  England,  ignorant  of  the 
country  and  the  people  they  were  to  rule. 

After  sevei>al  unsuccessful  petitions  to  the  English  government,  the 
discontent  burst  foi'th  ii^to  open  resistance.  The  principal  men  from 
each  colony  assembled  for  congultation,  and,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1776, 
declared  the  American  colonies  free  and  independent  of  England, 
and  determined  henceforth  to  make  their  own  laws.  The  English 
would  acknowledge  no  such  right ;  and,  treating  the  colonists  as 
rebels,  sent  over  an  army  to  put  down  the  disturbance.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  long,  terrible  years  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  freedom  of  the  colonists,  who  established  a  republican 
form  of  government,  and  were  acknowledged  by  the  European  nations 
as  an  independent  people,  having  equal  rights  with  themselves.  The 
thirteen  colonies  became  the  United  States  of  America,  and  the  na- 
tional flag  of  thirteen  stripes  and  symbolical  stars  was  soon  known  and 
respected  upon  all  seas. 

At  the  time  of  the  American  Revolution  the  settlements  did  not  ex- 
tend very  far  inland.  The  western  parts  of  the  large  States  of  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia  were  still  covered  with  forests, 
where  the  fallen  leaves  were  disturbed  only  by  the  light-footed  deer, 
or  the  stealthy  tread  of  the  Indian.  Reaching  into  this  wilderness 
were  outposts,  or  log-forts,  where  a  few  soldiers  were  stationed  to 
protect  the  borders,  and  the  pioneers  as  they  moved  westward. 

After  the  colonies  became  independent,  the  great  tide  of  emigration 
soon  rolled  beyond  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  spread  over  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi.  Adventurers  from  the  old  settlements  were 
always  ready  to  go  farther  west ;  and  many  families  of  thrifty,  indus- 
trious Germans  bade  farewell  to  their  "  Fatherland,"  and  came  over 
to  clear  farms  in  the  forest,  which  would  cost  nothing  but  hard  labor, 
and  might  become  comfortable  homes  for  their  children  and  grand- 
children. Every  year  the  number  of  emigrants  from  the  old  countries 
increased.  Here  and  there  in  the  forest  appeared  little  clearings, 
crossed  by  zigzag  fences,  and  covered  with  unsightly  stumps,  with  a 
log-cabin  in  the  midst.-   Thus,  while  another  generation  was  growing 

Questions  —  By  what  name  was  Virginia  known  ?  To  whom  was  Georgia  granted  ? 
Wliat  was  the  condition  of  the  colonies  at  this  time  ?  What  were  the  causes  of  discon- 
tent with  England  ?  What  was  tlie  result  of  this  discontent  ?  When  was  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence  made  ?  How  did  England  receive  it  ?  What  was  the  result 
of  the  war  ?  How  many  States  were  then  united  under  the  name  of  the  United  States  ? 
What  extent  of  country  was  settled  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  tide  of  emigration  after  the  Revolution  ?  What  was  the  appearance  of  a  farm  or 
"clearing  "  in  those  times  ?    What  is  said  of  the  inland  settlers  ? 


Log-house. 

up  in  the  Atlantic  States,  to  whom  the  early  terrors,  the  starvation, 
scalping,  and  massacres  were  stories  of  the  past,  the  inland  settlers 
were,  in  their  turn,  suflering  all  these  misfortunes  ;  since  the  Indians 
still  attempted,  though  vainly,  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  the 
whites.  By  the  end  of  another  half-century  these  clearings  had  be- 
come towns,  safe  roads  crossed  the  country  in  all  directions, 
steamboats  sailed  on  the  Mississippi  and  its  branches,  and  new  States 
were  added  to  the  Union. 

For  a  while  the  living  wave,  flowing  westward,  paused  on  the  banks 
of  the  great  river,  and  Arkansas  and  Missouri  were  border  States. 
Beyond  lay  the  vast  western  territory,  unsettled  except  by  a  few 
"squatters,"  or  hardy  adventurers,  willing  to  escape  from  the  re- 
straints of  civilized  life.  Exploring  expeditions  were  made  from  time 
to  time,  and  accounts  came  back  of  a  barren,  unpromising  country  to- 
ward the  Rocky  Mountains,  shared  by  herds  of  buffaloes  and  scattered 
tribes  of  Indians.  New  settlers,  therefore,  preferred  trying  their  for- 
tunes southward  in  Texas.  In  1848,  however,  the  discovery  of  gold, 
in  large  quantities,  caused  a  great  rush  to  California.  Laborers, 
merchants,  lawyers,  men  of  every  class,  not  only  from  all  parts  of 
our  own  country,  but  from  the  Old  World,  hastened  to  enrich  them- 
selves with  the  gold  of  tlie  western  mountain  region  ;  and  in  an 
incredibly  short  time  a  large  city  opened  its  harbor  to  trade  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  Beside  an  abundance  of  gold  on  the  mountain-slopes, 
there  were  fertile  valleys,  tracts  of  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  a  de- 
lightful climate,  far  milder  than  that  of  the  same  latitude  on  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The  first  feverish  gold-excitement  soon  died  out ; 
yet  the  population  of  California  has  increased  rapidly.  Mines  are 
now  worked  in  many  different  localities,  several  of  the  Western  Ter- 
ritories have  become  States,  towns  are  scattered  throughout  the 
country,  and  a  railroad  extends  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco, 
bringing  the  Pacific  within  seven  days'  reach  of  the  Atlantic  cities. 

The  United  States  now  cover  the  whole  breadth  of  the  continent 
from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  the  large  tract  of  Alaska,  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  continent,  has  been  added  to  their  domain. 

SUMMARY. 
In  1776  the  thirteen  Atlantic  colonies  declared  themselves  inde- 
pendent, and  after  a  war  of  eight  years  with  England,  established  a 
republican  government.  The  colonies  were  recognized  as  the  United 
States  of  America,  and  ths  people  as  the  American  nation.  Emigra- 
tion from  Europe  continued,  and  the  interior  of  the  country  was  grad-^ 
ually  settled,  the  remnants  of  Indian  tribes  retreating  beyond  the 
Mississippi.    . 


Questions.  —  What  had  been  the  progress  of  the  settlements  by  the  end  of  another 
half-century  ?  Why  did  not  emigration  continue  westward  ?  What  caused  the  rapid 
settlement  of  the  far  West  ?  What  is  said  of  the  growth  of  California  ?  What  are 
its  advantages,  beside  rich  mines  ?    What  is  now  the  extent  of  the  United  States  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


45 


In  1848  gold  was  discovered  in  California;  and  since  then  a  con- 
siderable population  has  collected  in  the  country  beyond  the  Kocky 
Mountains,  The  large  port  of  San  Francisco  has  grown  up  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  in  direct  communication  with  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
China,  and  Japan,  and  connected  by  railroad  with  the  Atlantic  cities. 

STUDY  OF  THE  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

[Refer  also  to  maps  on  pages  53,  57,  64,  and  71.] 
Arm,  8,600,000  Square  Miles.     Populatwn,  about  40,000,000. 

The  United  States  occupy  the  central  portion  of  North  America,  between  the 
26th  and  49th  parallels  of  latitude,  and  include  also  the  vast  territory  known  as 
Alaska, 

Boundaries.  —  They  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  British  America,from  which 
they  are  partly  separated  by  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  the  great  lakes ;  on 
the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  and  country  of  Mexico  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Coast.  —  The  east  or  Atlantic  coast  forms  three  inward  curves :  one  from 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  Cape  Cod;  a  larger  curve  from  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Hatteras; 
and  a  third  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Florida.  Along  the 
northern  part  of  this  coast  are  excellent  harbors ;  but  from  New  Jersey  southward 
the  shore  is  bordered  by  sand-bars  and  islands,  making  navigation  difficult.  Cape 
Hatteras,  especially,  has  long  been  a  terror  to  sailors.  The  principal  indentations 
are  Penobscot  Bay,  Casco  Bay,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Cape  Cod  Bay,  Buzzard's 
Bay,  Narragansett  Bay,  Long  Island  Sound,  New  York  Bay  ;  Delaware  Bay,  with 
Capes  May  and  Henlopen  at  its  opening ;  Chesapeake  Bay,  entering  between 
Capes  Charles  and  Henry ;  and  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  Sounds,  on  each  side  of 
Cape  Hatteras. 

The  principal  islands  are  Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Block  Island,  Long 
Island,  Port  Royal  and  other  islands  on  the  Carolina  coast,  and  the  Florida  Keys. 

The  south  coast,  on  the  Gulf  of  Me.xico,  makes  one  large  inward  curve  from 
the  southern  extremity  of  Florida  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Texas,  broken 
midway  by  the  projection  of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi  River.  There  are  some 
harbors,  though  the  shore  is  flat  and  sandy.  The  principal  indentations  are  Apa- 
lachee  Bay,  Pensacola  Bay,  Mobile  Bay,  Lake  Pontchartrain,  and  Galveston  Bay. 

The  west  or  Pacific  coast  forms  one  large  outward  curve  from  the  southwestern 
extremity  of  the  United  States  to  Cape  Flattery,  the  central  and  most  western 
point  being  Cape  Mendocino,  and  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  the  only  indenta- 
tion of  any  size.     Off  the  southwest  coast  are  the  islands  of  Santa  Barbara. 

Surface.  —  The  whole  country  is  divided  by  the  Appalachian  Mountain  sys- 
tem and  the  vast  system  of  the  Cordilleras  into  three  sections,  extending  from 
north  to  south  :  1st.  The  Atlantic  slope  between  the  ocean  and  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  2d.  The  great  plain  of  the  Mississippi  between  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  and  the  Cordilleras.  3d.  The  western  plateau  extending  from  the 
Rocky  Mountain  chain  to  the  Pacific. 

Mountains.  —  1st.  The  Rocky  Mountains  cross  the  whole  country  from  north 
to  south,  forming  the  eastern  border  of  the  plateau,  and  are  often  barren  and 
rocky  ;  hence  their  name. 

The  Coast  Range  rises  along  the  Pacific  shore ;  and  farther  inland  is  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  which,  toward  the  north,  takes  the  name  of  Cascade  Mountains.  The 
plateau  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  crossed  by  a 
number  of  ri<lge.s,  running  mostly  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  prominent 
among  which  are  the  Wahsatch,  and  the  East  and  West  Humboldt  ranges. 

2d.  The  Appalachian  system  extends  in  several  ridges,  parallel  to  the  Atlantic 
coast,  at  a  distance  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  takes 
different  names  in  different  States! 

Rivers.  —  1st.  From  the  Appalachian  Mountains  numerous  rivers  flow  in  a 
southeasterly  direction.  The  principal  of  these  are  the  Penobscot,  Kenne- 
bec, Connecticut,  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susqueliannah,  Potomac,  James,  Roanoke, 
Neuse,  Cape  Fear,  Pedee,  Santee,  Savannah,  and  Altamaha. 

2d.  The  Mississippi  rises  near  the  northern  boundary  in  Lake  Itasca,  and  flows 
southward  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  forming  a  large  delta.  The  principal  branches 
from  the  east  are  the  Wisconsin,  the  Illinois,  the  Ohio,  which  receives  the  Alle- 
ghany, Monongahela,  Kentucky,  Cumberland,  and  Tennessee,  and  the  Yazoo. 
The  western  branches  are  the  Red,  Arkansas,  St.  Francis,  Missouri,  Des  Moines, 
Iowa,  and  Minnesota. 

3d.  The  Pacific   rivers  are  the  Colorado  and  Gila,  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of 


CaUfornia ;  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  into  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco ; 
and  the  Columbia,  the  only  large  river  that  breaks  through  the  great  western 
mountain  chains.  Many  branches  of  the  Columbia,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas  are 
also  streams  of  considerable  size. 

Lakes.  —  The  great  lakes  of  North  America,  the  largest  in  the  world,  lie  on 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States.  The  principal  lake-region  within 
the  States  extends  over  the  northern  part  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vennont, 
and  New  York.  Those  best  known  are  Moosehead  Lake,  Lake  Champlain,  Lake 
George,  Seneca  Lake,  etc.  Many  small  lakes  of  great  beauty,  called  ponds,  are 
scattered  over  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country.  Other  lakes  are  found  near 
Lake  Superior,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  western  plateau  is  the  Great  Salt  Lake. 

States.  —  There  are  now  thirty-seven  States  and  eleven  Territories,  beside 
the  District  of  Columbia,  which  has  a  territorial  form  of  government. 

The  States  are  as  follows  :  — 

New  England  States,  —  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut.  Middle  States,  —  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia.  The  District  of  Columbia  is  situated  in  this 
section.  Southern  States,  —  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Texas.     North  Central  States, 

—  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kentucky, 
Kansas,  Nebraska.     Western  States,  —  California,  Oregon,  Nevada.     Territories, 

—  Dakota,  Indian,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  Idaho,  Utah,  Arizona, 
Washington,  Alaska. 

MAP  QUESTIONS. 

What  States  border  on  the  Atlantic  ?  On  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  On  the  Pacific  ? 
What  States  and  Territories  border  on  British  America  ?  What  States  touch  the  great 
lakes  ?  What  States  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  ?  On  the  west  ?  On  the 
Ohio  ?  What  States  are  crossed  by  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ?  What  States  border 
on  Mexico  ?  Where  is  Utah  ?  Arizona  ?  Where  is  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  ?  and 
where  is  the  name  changed  ?  Where  are  the  Wahsatch  Mountains  ?  What  river  is 
between  Washington  Territory  and  Oregon  ?  Where  is  the  Colorado  River  ?  What 
rivers  form  the  Ohio  ?  Between  what  States  is  the  Potomac  ?  The  Connecticut  ? 
The  Savannah  ?     What  river  forms  the  boundary  between  Texas  and  Mexico  ? 

DESCRIPTION. 

Country.  —  This  great  central  belt  of  the  continent  covers  such  a 
breadth  of  latitude  as  to  include  all  desirable  varieties  of  climate  and 
productions,  from  the  pine  woods  of  the  north  to  the  sugar-cane  and 
oranges  of  the  subtropical  gulf-region,  without  extending  into  the 
frigid  zone  or  extreme  torrid  heats.  Except  some  desert  tracts  of  the 
western  plateau,  no  part  of  this  immense  territory  is  uninhabitable. 

Western  Section.  — Though  barren  tracts  extend  more  or  less  over 
the  western  plateau,  there  are  also  many  fertile  valleys  of  exceeding 
beauty,  where  the  climate  is  milder  than  in  the  Eastern  States  of  the 
same  latitude,  and  the  vegetation  wonderfully  luxuriant. 

Central  Section.  —  The  great  basin,  watered  by  the  Mississippi 
and  its  branches,  is  one  of  the  finest  agricultural  regions  in  the  world, 
and  the  forests  supply  good  timber.  All  the  most  useful  metals  are 
found  in  abundance,  and  navigable  streams  cross  the  country  in  all 
directions. 

Eastern  Section.  —  The  Atlantic  slope  consists  of  a  well-wooded, 
fertile  hill-country,  and  a  sea-board  open  to  the  most  commercial 
countries  of  the  world  ;  while  its  many  streams  afi"ord  water-power 
for  various  kinds  of  manufactures. 

Occupations  of  the  people.  —  With  such  a  variety  of  climate 
and  productions,  the  population  of  difierent  parts  of  our  country 
must  diflPer  greatly  in  number  and  occupation.  In  these  respects  the 
country  may  be  divided  into  four  sections  :  — 

Ist.  The  thickly  settled  Northeastern  States,  with  good  harbors  and 

Questions.  —  What  are  the  advantages  of  climate  in  this  central  belt  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  western  plateau  ?  Of  the  great  Mississippi  plain  ?  Of  the  Atlantic  slope  ? 
Of  the  occupations  of  the  people  ?  What  and  where  is  the  commercial  and  manufac- 
turing region  ? 


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48 


OUR  WORLD. 


large  seaports,  where  the  people  are  engaged  in  commerce  and  manu- 
factures. 

2d.  The  agricultural  Central  States,  or  prairie  lands  about  the  Up- 
per Mississippi,  where  grain  is  chiefly  grown. 

3d.  A  second  agricultural  region,  including  the  Southern  States, 
where  the  towns  are  mostly  small,  the  plantations  large  and  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  rice,  or  sugar,  and  where  many  of  the 
inhabitants  are  colored. 

4th.  The  great  mining  region  of  the  West,  as  yet  thinly  settled,  and 
where  society  is  generally  in  a  rough,  transition  state. 

Metals.  —  Iron  abounds  in  most  of  the  States,  chiefly  in  Missouri, 
Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and  Illinois.  Lead  is  most  abundant  in 
Missouri,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois.  Copper  occurs  frequently, 
but  the  great  copper  region  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Superior. 
Gold  was  formerly  obtained  in  Carolina  and  Virginia,  but  is  now 
found  in  much  larger  quantities  in  California  and  other  Western 
States  and  Territories.  Silver  is  obtained  most  abundantly  from 
Arizona,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  New  Mexico. 

Minerals.  —  Goal  is  found  in  all  the  States  except  two  or  three  in 
the  northeast,  but  the  principal  coal-fields  are  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
and  Illinois.  Marble  for  building  purposes  is  found  in  most  of  the 
States  except  those  along  the  Mississippi.  Limestone  takes  the  place 
of  marble  in  some  of  the  States  near  the  Mississippi.  Granite  abounds 
in  the  Northeastern  States.  Sandstone,  red,  light  yellow,  and  of  other 
shades  of  color,  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country.    Salt,  sul- 


phur, and  mineral  springs  are  numerous  in  Virginia,  New  York,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  Arkansas,  etc.  Hot  springs  and  geysers  have  been 
discovered  in  the  newly  settled  western  country. 

Forests.  —  1.  The  forests  of  the  Northern  States  consist  chiefly 
of  pines  and  other  evergreens,  with  the  birch,  willow,  alder,  aspen, 
elm,  maple,  and  oak,  and  there  are  many  other  trees  beside. 

2.  The  trees  of  the  Central  States  are  oak,  ash,  maple,  hickory, 
black  walnut,  chestnut,  poplar,  dogwood,  sweet  gum,  sycamore,  lo- 
cust, cedar,  and  Others. 

3.  The  forests  of  the  Southern  States  include  the  cedar,  cypress, 
live-oak,  catalpa,  magnolia,  and  palmetto.  In  the  extreme  South, 
oranges  and  some  other  tropical  prodiictions  are  found. 

Animals.  —  The  animals  of  the  country  are  the  fox,  squirrel,  rab- 
bit, raccoon,  prairie  dog,  lynx,  moose,  buflfalo  or  bison,  bear,  wolf, 
deer,  wild-cat,  beaver,  etc. 

The  rattlesnake  is  the  most  formidable  reptile.  The  moccason- 
snake  and  adder  are  also  venomous,  and,  in  the  extreme  South,  alli- 
gators frequent  the  rivers. 

Of  birds,  the  eagle  has  long  since  taken  the  first  place  and  become 
the  national  emblem.  Vultures,  buzzards,  hawks,  and  other  birds  of 
prey  are  common.  The  American  mocking-bird  is  one  of  the  sweet- 
est songsters,  and  has  the  power  of  imitating  other  birds.  Sparrows, 
robins,  wrens,  swallows,  etc.,  are  abundant.  Grouse,  wild  ducks, 
turkeys,  and  quails  are  found  by  sportsmen  in  different  parts  of  the 
country. 


THE   ATLAJ^TIO    SLOPE, 


Physically,  t1lis  slope  is  the  strip  of  country  lying  between  the  Ap- 
palachian Mountains  and  the  ocean  ;  but,  politically,  it  includes,  be- 
side the  Atlantic  States,  Vermont,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania,  the 
last  two  extending  beyond  the  mountain  chains. 

The  hill-country,  along  the  base  of  the  mountains,  sinks  into  a 
low  belt  of  alluvial  coast-lands,  extending  from  Maine  to  Florida. 
The  surface  of  all  the  Atlantic  States  is,  therefore,  similar  ;  namely, 
a  low,  sandy  tract,  with  here  and  there  rocky  headlands,  border- 
ing on  the  ocean ;  and  a  broken  or  hilly  interior,  rising  westward 
into  the  Appalachian  mountain  region.  The  principal  ridges  of  this 
mountain  system  are  the  White  Mountains  in  New  Hampshire,  the 
Green  Mountains  in  Vermont,  the  Adirondacks  and  Catskills  in  New 
York,  the  AUeghanies  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Blue  Eidge  in  Virginia, 
the  Black  Mountains  in  Carolina,  and  the  Cumberland  Mountains  in 
Tennessee.  The  most  isolated  of  these  are  the  White  Mountains  and 
the  Adirondacks,  which  seem  scarcely  connected  with  the  main  system. 

Each  State  is  abundantly  supplied  with  water-power  by  the  numer- 
ous streams  which  cross  the  slope,  usually  in  a  southeasterly  direction 
from  the  mountains  to  the  Atlantic. 

While  there  is  this  general  similarity  of  surface,  the  great  variation 
of  latitude  produces  a  decided  difference  in  climate  and  productions, 
and  in  the  occupations  of  the  people^  so  that,  for  a  more  particular 
description,  it  is  convenient  to  divide  the  slope  into  two  sections. 

Questions What  two  agricultural  regions  are  thjre,  and  what  are  the  productions 

of  each  ?  What  is  said  of  the  raining  region  ?  ■  Where  are  coal  and  iron  found  ? 
Lead  ?  Copper  ?  Gold  ?  Silver  ?  Marble  ?  Limestone  ?  Granite  ?  Sandstone  ?  Salt 
and  mineral  springs  ?  What  are  the  most  common  trees  of  the  northern  I'orests  ?  Of 
the  central  forests  ?  Of  the  southern  forests  ?  What  are  some  of  the  most  common 
animals  of  the  country  ?  What  is  the  most  formidable  reptile  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
eagle  ?  What  other  birds  are  there  ?  Of  what  does  the  Atlantic  slope  consist  ?  Into 
what  two  belts  is  it  divided  ?  What  are  the  principal  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  chain  ? 
What  is  said  of  its  rivers  ?    What  differences  are  there  between  the  northern  and 


THE  NORTHERN  SECTION. 

This  section  includes  the  New  England  States,  with  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware,  and  is  the  great  commercial 
and  manufacturing  region,  the  most  populous  portion  of  the  United 
States.  Toward  the  east  coast,  especially,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
larger  cities,  one  village  almost  connects  with  another. 


Ughthonae. 


southern  parts  of  the  slope  ?    What  States  does  the  north  section  include  ?    What  is 
the  general  character  of  this  section  ? 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


49 


The  coast  is  often  rocky,  sometimes  even  bold,  and  at  some  seasons 
the  waves  of  the  stormy  Atlantic  break  with  great  violence  on  its 
granite  clifiFs,  and  the  gleam  from  lighthouses  on  many  dangerous 
points  warns  sailors  off  the  rocks.  Yet  the  numerous  bays  and  in- 
lets afford  fine  harbors  ;  and  here  are  most  of  the  large  seaports  of  the 
United  States,  in  constant  communication  with  all  parts  of  the  hab- 
itable globe  ;  and  many  lesser  ports,  engaged  in  fisheries  or  ship- 
building. Alternating  with  the  bolder  parts  of  the  coast  are  "  salt 
marshes,"  or  levels  of  coarse,  reed-like  grass  ;  and  sandy  flats,  over- 
grown with  the  low,  creeping  cranberry  vine. 


Salt  Marshes. 

The  scenery  of  this  belt  of  coast  land  is  marked  by  rocky  hills, 
covered  with  a  scrubby  growth  of  bprry  bushes  and  golden-rod  ;  by 
meadows  and  orchards  parted  by  low  stone-walla  or  hedges  ;  and  by 
sedgy  marshes,  full  of  ferns  and  orchids,  all  intersected  by  a  labyrinth 
of  country  roads,  winding  from  village  to  ^lage.  There  are  no  real 
forests,  but  here  and  there  groves  of  dark  old  pines,  low,  thick 
woods  of  oak  and  young  evergreens,  and  streams  fringed  with  the 
willow  and  black  alder.     Especially  characteristic  of  all  this  eastern 


country  is  the  beautiful  elm,  often  attaining  a  great  size,  and  forming 
a  part  of  almost  every  landscape,  dotting  the  meadows,  shading  the 


Qnestions.  —  Describe  the  coast, 
of  forests  and  trees  ? 


Describe  the  beit  of  coast  land.     What  is  said 


roads,  or  spreading  its  graceful,  drooping  branches  over  village 
church  and  cottage.  Quite  as  familiar  are  the  numerous  sheets  of 
water,  popularly  called  "  ponds,"  but  clear  and  beautiful  enough  to 
bear  the  more  poetic  name  of  lake.  In  summer  they 'are  often  white 
with  water-lilies,  and  in  winter  thronged  with  skaters.  Many  of  the 
larger  ponds  supply  the  cities  with  water  and  with  ice. 

Such  is  the  coast  region  of  the  Northern  States,  thickly  interspersed 
with  cities  and  villages,  and  comprising  the  southern  parts  of  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire,  and  a  large  part  of  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware. 

Hill  country.  —  As  the  land  rises  farther  inland,  the  cities  become 
less  numerous,  the  farms  larger,  the  hills  higher,  the  valleys  deeper 
and  broader,  and  large  forests  appear.  Though  the  country  may  still 
be  called  populous,  we  see  less  of  man  and  more  of  nature ;  till  at 
last,  travelling  through  the  forest  wilderness  of  Maine,  over  the  much- 
visited  White  Mountain  country,  among  the  picturesque  Catskills  or  the 
romantic  wilds  of  the  Pennsylvanian  Alleghanies,  we  find  ourselves 
in  the  true  mountain-region.  The  rounded  outlines,  wooded  sum- 
mits, rivers,  cascades,  and  green  valleys  of  the  Appalachian  chain, 
exhibit  all  the  wildness  and  beauty  of  mountain  scenery,  without  the 
grandeur  or  sublimity  belonging  to  the  Swiss  glaciers  and  ava- 
lanches, the  volcanic  peaks  and  precipitous  gorges  of  the  Andes,  or 
the  severe  desolation  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Many  of  the  inter- 
vening valleys  are  under  cultivation,  and  railways  connect  this  east- 
ern country  with  the  great  West,  as  if  no  mountain-chain  stood  in 
the  way.  Beyond  the  mountains  is  found  the  prettily  diversified 
surface  of  a  large  part  of  New  York  and  of  Western  Pennsylvania, 
with  woods,  lakes,  fields,  and  pastures  ;  still  populous,  and  with  nu- 
merous manufacturing  towns  and  villages,  but  assuming  a  more 
agricultural  character,  as  it  slopes  into  the  great  central  plain  of  the 
Mississippi. 

Inhabitants.  —  The  people  of  the  Northeastern  States  are  remark- 
able for  their  intelligence,  neatness,  and  activity  ;  and  these  traits  are 
everywhere  apparent. 

Large  sums  are  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  education,  and  public 
schools  of  various  grades  are  found  in  city  and  village,  where  boys 
and  girls  may  be  educated  without  other  cost  than  the  school-tax  paid 
by  each  citizen.  There  are  also  colleges,  and  institutions  of  various 
kinds  specially  designed  to  prepare  students  for  some  profession  or 
occupation.  In  the  larger  cities  are  valuable  libraries,  many  of  them 
for  the  free  use  of  the  inhabitants,  where  a  vast  number  of  costly 
books  may  be  consulted,  that  otherwise  could  only  be  obtained  by  the 
wealthy.  In  the  reading-rooms  usually  attached  to  these  libraries,  all 
the  current  periodicals  and  newspapers  may  be  read,  not  only  by  per- 
sons who  have  comfortable  homes,  but  by  thousands  to  whom  a  quiet 
room,  warmed  and  lighted,  is  a  luxury  that  could  be  enjoyed  in  no 
other  way.  An  immense  number  of  newspapers  are  published  in  the 
cities,  and  quickly  distributed  over  the  country  by  means  of  the  many 
railroads,  so  that  hard-working  men  on  the  distant  farms  understand 
and  can  speak  intelligently  of  what  is  going  on  all  over  the  world. 
From  these  States  have  come  many  of  our  authors,  poets,  historians, 
and  scientific  men  ;  some  of  whom  have  acquired  a  reputation  even  in 
the  Old  World,  and  whose  works  have  now  become  sufficiently  numer- 
ous and  important  to  form  an  American  literature. 

The  neatness  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  States  has  become  pro- 
verbial, and  gives  to  the  whole  country  an  appearance  of  thrift  and 
comfort  very  attractive.     Still  more  characteristic,  if  possible,  is  the 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  ponds?  Describe  the  hill  country.  What  is  the 
character  of  the  Appalachian  mountain  country  as  compared  with  other  mountain 
scenery  ?  What  parts  of  the  north  section  extend  westward  beyond  the  mountains  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  ? 


50 


OUR  WORLD. 


energy  with  which  all  pursuits  or  occupations,  whether  of  head  or 
hand,  are  conducted.  The  people  are  accused,  indeed,  of  too  great 
haste  in  money-making,  which  exhausts  their  lives  without  leaving 
time  for  social  pleasures  ;  but,  if  they  are  eager  in  business,  they 
carry  out,  with  the  same  vigorous  activity,  many  philantliropic  plans 
for  the  establishment  of  charitable  institutions,  for  the  extension  of 
knowledge,  and  for  the  advancement  of  science. 

Occupations. —  Manufacturing  is  the  general  occupation  of  the 
people  throughout  the  country  ;  and  in  town  and  village,  machinery  of 
all  kinds  is  continually  at  work,  producing  almost  every  conceivable 
article  that  can  be  bought  or  used.  Especially  interesting  are  the  im- 
mense establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  cottons,  woollens,  and 
machinery.  Great  mills  maybe  seen  in  the  suburbsof  thriving  cities 
or  trading  centres,  wherever  a  running  stream  aflbrds  convenient 
water-power ;  and,  as  hundreds  of  operatives  are  often  employed 
within  the  walls  of  one  building,  a  large  manufacturing  population  is 
collected  in  their  immediate  neighborhood.  The  picturesque  situation 
of  many  of  these  mills,  the  clustering  shade-trees,  the  rush  of  the  water 
over  the  dam,  and  the  quiet  stream  winding  away  through  the  mead- 
ows below,  go  far  to  make  one  forget  the  red  brick  walls,  black  smoke, 
noisy  machinery,  and  the  atmosphere  of  oils  and  dyes.  Proprietors 
frequently  build  houses  for  the  accommodation  of  the  operatives,  and 
rows  of  cottages  often  stand  near  the  mills,  many  of  them  ornamented 
with  scarlet-runners  or  morning-glories,  and  for  the  most  part  neat 
and  comfortable  in  appearanca.  Yet  much  remains  to  be  done,  as 
civilization  advances,  to  improve  the  conditions  of  factory  life. 

The  most  extensive  cotton-mills  arc  along  the  Merrimac,  both  in 
Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire,  at  Fall  River,  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  An  immense  quantity  of 
cotton  is  brought  annually  from  our  Southern  States  to  be  made  into 
white  cloth,  calicoes,  ginghams,  and  thread.  Among  the  important 
establishments  are  immense  print-works,  which  consume  large  quan- 
tities of  foreign  and  domestic  dye-stuffs.  Carpets  and  other  woollen 
goods  are  also  largely  manufactured  in  some  localities. 

Having  in  our  own  country  an  abundance  of  coal  and  iron,  many 
people  are  employed  in  mining ;  and,  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
Connecticut,  and  Massachusetts,  iron-manufactures  are  extensively 
carried  on,  including  hardware,  castings,  rifles,  machinery,  steam- 
engines,  and  agricultural  implements.  The  manufacture  of  shoes  is 
very  extensive,  and  there  are  large  tanneries,  as  well  as  shops  for 
the  manufacture  of  pegs  and  lasts. 

Beside  these  more  general  manufactures,  in  which  many  thousands 
are  employed,  various  kinds  of  wares  are  produced  in  different  towns  ; 
some  localities  have  become  famous  for  glass-ware,  carriages,  plated 
ware,  clocks  or  watches. 

Fanning.  —  The  soil  of  the  North  Atlantic  slope  is  not  remarkable 
for  its  fertility,  though  there  are  some  fine  valleys  toward  the  interior, 
especially  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  Much  of  the  country  is 
too  broken  for  cultivation  ;  large  parts  of  New  Hampshire  and  Ver- 
mont are  only  profitable  as  grazing  lands  ;  and  portions  of  the  coast- 
belt  are  barren  and  rocky. 

The  farmers  produce  chiefly  provisions  for  the  use  of  the  neighbor- 
ing population  ;  and  in  the  thickly  settled  coast  region,  especially, 
the  cultivated  lands  are  devoted  to  fruits  and  vegetables.  Grain  is 
grown  on  the  larger  farms,  but  to  no  great  extent.  The  soil  is  often 
poor,  and  the  farms  are  small,  compared  with  the  vast  cultivated  tracts 

Questious.  —  What  is  one  of  the  most  general  occupations  ?  "What  is  said  of  the 
great  manufacturing  establishments  ?  Where  are  the  great  cotton-mills  ?  What  other 
establishments  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  iron-works  ?  Of  shoe-factories  ? 
What  other  wares  are  manufactured  1  What  is  said  of  farming,  and  the  productions 
of  this  part  of  the  country  ?    What  is  another  important  occupation  ? 


of  the  West  and  South  ;  yet  the  land  is  well  tilled.  Intelligent  labor, 
the  most  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  and  a  chemical  knowledge 
of  soils  compensate  for  natural  deficiencies  ;  and  where  markets  are 
numerous,  and  transportation  easy  and  rapid,  it  is  profitable  to  expend 
considerable  time  and  money  on  a  small  space.  On  a  few  old-fash- 
ioned farms,  most  remote  from  the  cities,  the  people  still  retain  their 
simple  habits.  Great  wood-fires  blaze  on  the  hearth,  and  j'arn  is  spun 
on  the  wheel  ;  but  even  here,  by  means  of  newspapers  and  pedlers, 
mowing  and  sewing  machines  have  been  introduced,  and  the  corn- 
huskings,  apple-parings,  and  quiltings  of  old  times  are  no  longer 
necessary  accompaniments  of  New  England  farming.  The  grazing 
lands  of  Vermont  and>New  Hampshire  suppl^  a  considerable  quantity 
of  wool ;  and  the  fine  di|iry  farms  of  New  York  produce  more  butter 
amLcheese  than  are  made  in  any  other  State  of  the  Union. 

Fisheries. —  Various  t^jv^ns  along  the  coast  we  engaged  in  the  great 
cod  and  nuickerel  fisheries,  for  which  the  Atlantic  waters  in  this  vicin- 
ity have  long  been  fainous.  Meets  of  fishing-vessels  go  forced  to  the 
Newfoundland  Banks,  and  into  the  #ulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  New  Bedford, 
New  London,  and  other  towns  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  are 
Itfrgely  engaged  in  whaling,  and  whale-ships  are  sent  into  both  the 
Pacific  and  North  .\tlantic  waters  ;  but  the  business  is  not  so  exten- 
sive as  formerly.    -  ^ 

Shipbuilding  is  another  important  occupation  of  the  coast  pec^e. 
With  excellent  harbors,  large  streams  to  bring  down  plenty  of  good 
lumber  to  the  coast,  and  the  necessary  tools  and  machinery  manufac- 


/> 


Shipbuilding. 

tured  near  by,  the  business  has  been  for  many  years  successfully  car- 
ried on,  though  recently  it  has  rather  declined,  owing  to  the  facilities 
for  obtaining  more  cheaply  built  foreign  vessels. 

Beside  the  many  ship-yards  along  the  coast  there  are  several  large 
navy-yards  for  the  building  and  repairing  of  war  or  government  ves- 
sels ;  and  the  American  "iron-clads,"  first  made  and  used  during 
the  late  war,  are  regarded  as  among  the  important  modern  inven- 
tions. 

Commerce,  in  all  its  branches,  gives  employment  to  a  large  portion 
of  the  populiition.  Regular  lines  of  steamers  sail  between  this  coast 
and  Europe  ;  innumerable  vessels  are  engaged  in  the  exportation  and 
importation  of  every  variety  of  produce  and  merchandise  ;  and  the 

QnestionB.  —  What  of  the  fisheries  and  fishing  towns  ?  What  places  are  noted  for 
whaling  ?    What  is  said  of  shipbuilding  ?    Of  commerce  1 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


61 


wharves  of  our  large  seaports  are  lined  with  shipping  from  all  parts 
of  the  world. 

The  seamen,  upon  whom  this  large  commerce  greatly  depends,  are 
usually  natives  of  the  coast  towns,  who  are  early  attracted  to  sea- 
faring life  ;  and  who,  after  a  few  years'  experience,  are  not  only  pre- 
pared to  take  command  of  a  vessel,  but  have  acquired  a  general 
knowledge  of  foreign  ports,  and  of  the  kinds  of  merchandise  suitable 
for  the  different  markets. 

Many  of  the  merchants  are  ship-owners,  and  engage  ofBcers  to  sail 
their  vessels  ;  others  employ  vessels  to  bring  such  merchandise  as 
they  require  ;  and  the  smaller  traders  are  supplied  by  the  wholesale 
dealers.  *  • 

Imports.  —  Groceries,  chietly  obtained  froA  warm  countries,  are 
among  our  largest  impoi'ts.  The  great  wholesale  dealers  of  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Philadelphia  send  vessels  to  the  West  Indies  for  sugar, 
molasses,  cigars,  and,sw^t-meats  ;  to  the  Mediterranean  for  oraiiges, 
lemons,  olives,  dried  fruits,  nuts,  oto.  ;  and'to'the  East  Indie^or 
coflee,  gums,  and.  spices. 

Teas  and  wines  are  important  imports. 

Dry  goods  are  extensively  imported ;  chiefly  linens  from  the  flax- 
growing  countries  of  Europe,  broadcloth,  fine  dress  goods,  and  fanCy 
*aci;&:les  ;  for,  though  we  make  cottons,  calicoes,  and  some  woollen 
gogas,  the  American  looms  have  not  proftuced  the  delicate  cambrics, 
uAr  me  soft  texture  and  rich  colors  of  tiie  French  delaines  and  thibets  ; 
and  as  yet  the  best  qualities  of  laces,  ribbons,  and  gloves,  and  the 
finest  watches  and  jewelry,  are  ;nade  by  the  more  experienced  manu- 
facturers of  Europe. 

Hides,  in  great  numbers,  are  brought  from  South  America  to  supply 
our  extensive  leather-manufactures.  Dye  stufl's,  india-rubber,  and 
guano  are  also  largely  imported. 

Tin  has  not  been  mined  in  the  United  States,  and  is  imported  from 
the  Cornwall  mines  of  England,  and  from  the  island  of  Banca. 

Iron  and  copper,  wliich  abound  in  our  own  country,  are  largely 
imported,  because  tiie  labor  of  mining  is  much  cheaper  in  Europe, 
and  because  it  is  hard  to  find  here  intelligent  and  experienced  head- 
miners  to  direct  the  work. 

Certain  localities  have  becom^«)§lebrated  for  some  particular  styles 
or  qualities  of  manufactures,  which  are  eagerly  sought  by  merchants 
of  other  countries.  Thus,  goods  in  endless  variety  are  transported 
hither  and  thither,  and  India  shawls,  Bohemian  glass,  Dutch  bulbs, 
German  toys,  Siberian  furs,  etc.,  are  drawn  into  the  great  commercial 
••urroiit  and  deposited  on  our  shores.  v% 

Exports. —  The  cotton  grown  in  our  Southern  States  not  only  sup- 
lilies  the  mills  of  New  England,  but  many  of  the  factories  of  Europe. 

Grain,  flour,  smdfl^^h  are  all  largely  exported  in  various  directions. 

Manufactures,  especially  cottons,  hardware,  and  machinery,  are  sent 
to  the  West  Indies  and  to  South  America.  American  sewing-machines 
are  known  in  Europe;  and  our  calicoes,  beads,  rifles,  etc.,  often  pass 
through  the  highways  and  byways  of  traffic  into  the  possession  of 
African  chiefs 

Inland  trade.  —  The  vast  quantity  of  merchandise  brought  con- 
tinually to  this  coast  is  not  consumed  in  the  immediate  neighborhood. 
Collected  here  from  various  foreign  ports,  it  is  distributed  throughout 
the  interior  of  the  continent.  By  means  of  railroads,  canals,  and 
steamboats  on  all  the  navigable  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  sugar, 
coffee,  and  molasses   are   so   widely  distributed  that  "  West  India 


Goods"  are  announced  in  the  grocery  stores  of  the  remotest  vil- 
lages ;  and,  from  the  inland  States,  cotton,  grain,  pork,  and  cattle 
are  brought  to  the  coast  for  exportation. 

Coast  trade.  —  There  is  also  a  regular  coast  trade,  or  interchange 
of  produce  and  merchandise  from  port  to  port  along  the  Atlantic 
coast ;  and  hundreds  of  vessels  are  constantly  engaged  in  carrying 
cotton,  rice,  tar,  pitch,  lumber,  coal,  granite,  ice,  etc.  Some  go  to 
Mexico  or  Central  America  for  indig(j,  cochineal,  and  mahogany. 

Cities. —  Generally  speaking,  American  cities  are  regularly  laid 
out,  with  straight,  parallel  streets,  often  crossing  at  right  angles  ; 
though  some  of  the  older  cities  have  imitated  the  narrow,  irregular 
streets  of  the  Old  World. 

The  largo  Eastern  cities  may  be  said  to  consist  of  three  parts  :  1st, 
pleasant  suburbs  of  handsome  residences,  embowered  in  drooping 
elms  and  shrubbery,  and  surrounded  with  extensive  grounds ;  2d, 
long  blocks  of  brick  dwellings,  with  churches  and  schools,  forming 
the  main  part  of  the  city ;  3d,  a  crowded  business-centre,  with  many 
fine  warehouses,  banks,  and  offices.  In  the  great  ports  may  be  found 
a  fourth  locality  of  wharves,  warehouses,  carts,  drays,  barrels,  boxes, 
dirt,  and  confusion. 

In  the  smaller  cities  many  of  the  dwellings,  and  even  the  churches, 
are  of  wood,  but  of  considerable  architectural  pretension ;  and  the 
houses  are  usually  surrounded  by  beautiful  grounds.  * 


Questions.  —  How  is  this  large  commerce  carried  on  ?     What  are  the  principal 
I     imports  ?    Where  do  our  groceries  come  from  ?    Dry  goods  ?     Hides  and  dye-stuffs  ? 


Why  is  iron  imported  ?    What  are  our  principal  exports  i 
the  inland  trade  ? 


What  do  we  mean  by 


Villages.  —  Nothing  is  more  characteristic  or  more  attractive  than 
the  New  England  village,  enclosed  by  orchards  and  meadows  ;  with 
its  slender  spires  rising  above  the  trees  ;  its  clusters  of  white  frame- 
houses,  with  their  open  piazzas,  close-clipped  terraces  and  hedges ; 
and  its  smooth,  unpaved  streets,  shaded  by  maples  and  horse-chest- 
nuts, or  double  rows  of  elms.  In  relief  to  the  dazzling  whiteness 
and  somewhat  prim  form  of  the  typical  village  home,  are  quaint  little 
brown  cottages,  with  diminutive  gables  and  turrets,  and  here  and 
there  stylish  dwellings,  constructed  after  the  latest  architectural 
devices,  and  enclosed  by  well-kept  grounds.  With  much  of  the  quiet 
and  beauty  of  country  life,  these  villages  are  often  easily  accessible 
to  the  cities,  and  have  their  own  lecture-rooms,  libraries,  amuse- 
ments, and  resources. 

Questions.  —  The  coast  trade  ?  What  is  said  of  American  cities  generally  ?  Of 
the  smaller  cities  ?    Describe  the  Tillages. 


52 


OUR  WORLD. 


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54 


OUR  WORLD. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

New  Hampshire  is  a  land  of  hills  and  rock  ;  its  abundant  granite 
giving  it  tlio  name  of  the  Granite  State.  In  beauty  of  lake  and 
mountain-scenery  it  is  often  compared  with  Switzerland  ;  and  the 
"  White  Hills  "  attract  visitors  from  all  parts  of  the  country. 


*rhe  mountain-region  consists  of  a  plateau  crossed  by  two  distinct 
groups  of  mountains  :  — 

1.  The  White  Mountains  proper,  with  Mount  Washington,  6,280 
feet  high,  as  their  highest  peak ;  beside  Mount  Adams,  Mount  Madi- 
son, Mount  Jefferson,  and  other  summits. 

2.  The  Franconia  group,  of  which  Mount  Lafayette  is  the  chief 
summit.  The  Pemigewasset,  the  head  branch  of  the  Merrimac,  flows 
through  the  rocky  valley  of  this  range.  "  The  Flume,"  a  remarkable 
mountain-fissure  and  narrow  water-way,  is  one  of  its  chief  attrac- 
tions ;  and,  from  a  certain  point  in  the  notch,  three  projecting  masses 
of  rock  present  the  appearance  of  a  human  profile,  known  as  "  The 
Old  Man  of  the  Mountain." 

This  plateau  is  approached  by  four  river-valleys.  The  Andro- 
scoggin leads  to  Gorham  and  the  wild  region  known  as  "  The  Glen," 
at  the  base  of  Mount  Washington.  Another  route,  by  way  of  Lake 
Winncpiseogee  and  the  Saco  valley  to  the  celebrated  "Notch," 
passes  Mount  Kearsarge  and  Conway,  a  favorite  resort  for  artists. 
The  Pemigewasset  leads  directly  to  the  Franconia  range.  The  ap- 
proach by  the  Connecticut  Valley  gives  a  fine  view  of  the  whole 
extent  of  the  ranges.  Each  route  has  special  points  of  interest  and 
great  variety  of  scenery. 

The  soil  of  Now  Hampshire  is  not  very  suitable  for  cultivation, 
and  the  farmers  depend  mainly  upon  their  live-stock  and  dairies. 
The  granite  is  made  profitable  for  building  purposes,  and  the  rocky 
soil  also  supplies  the  neighboring  cities  with  soapstone  and  mica. 

The  cities  are  small,  and  the  northern  part  of  the  State  thinly  set- 
tled ;  but  the  southeastern  part  is  populous,  and  there  is  an  impor- 
tant manufacturing  district  along  the  Merrimac,  connected  with  the 
great  cotton  and  woollen  manufacturing  district  of  Massachusetts. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  surface  of  New  Hampshire  ?  AVhat  of  the  White 
Mountain  region  ?  What  is  the  Flume  ?  What  is  said  of  Tlie  Old  Man  of  the  Moun- 
tain ?  What  are  the  approaches  to  this  mountain-region  ?  What  is  said  of  New 
Hampshire  farmers  ?    Of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  State  ?    Of  the  cities  ? 


Manchester  is  the  largest  city,  and  owes  its  rapid  growth  to  the 
increase  of  the  manufacturing  population.  Concord,  the  capital,  and 
Nashua  are  also  thriving  manufacturing  towns  on  the  Merrimac. 

Portsmouth,  a  small  but  handsome  city,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Piscat- 
aqua,  is  the  only  seaport,  and,  in  regard  to  wealth  and  commerce,  is 
tlie  fii-st  city  in  the  State,  tliough  outnumbered  in  population  by  some 
of  the  manufacturing  towns.  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  is  a 
United  States  navy-yard  ;  and  the  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on  the 
coast.  Dover,  the  oldest  town  in  the  State,  has  fine  water-power 
and  extensive  cotton  and  shoe  manufactures. 

VERMONT. 

Vermont  is  also  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery.  The  moun- 
tains, though  in  a  more  connected  chain  than  those  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, are  not  so  high,  and  the  evergreen  forests  of  their  rounded 
summits  have  given  them  the  name  of  Green  Mountains.  Mount 
Mansfield  is  the  highest  peak.  Waterfalls,  cascades,  and  rapids  are 
numerous  throughout  the  hilly  country,  adding  greatly  to  its  beauty. 
Bellows  Falls,  on  the  Connecticut,  are  the  most  widely  known. 

Vermont,  being  entirely  shut  out  from  the  sea-shore,  has  no  coast 
line  except  on  Lake  Champlain,  wliich  separates  it  from  New  York, 
and  consequently  no  foreign  commerce  except  through  other  States. 

The  towns  are  generally  small,  and  the  manufactures  are  less  than 
in  any  of  the  New  England  States  ;  but  the  Vermont  people  have  ac- 
quired a  reputation  as  farmers  in  all  the  surrounding  country,  supply- 
ing the  markets  with  excellent  butter  and  cheese  ;  while  more  grain 
and  wool  and  fine  cattle  are  produced  here  than  in  many  larger  States. 
Maple-sugar  is  made  in  such  large  quantities  as  to  become  an  im- 
portant article  of  trade. 

Montpelier,  the  capital  of  the  State,  is  situated  on  Onion  river  ; 
and  Burlington,  one  of  the  principal  towns,  stands  at  the  mouth  of 
the  same  river,  where  it  flows  into  Lake  Champlain. 

Rutland  is  famous  for  its  fine  marble  quarries,  and  Brattleboro,  in 
the  southeastern  part,  for  its  beautiful  scenery. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Massachusetts,  in  direct  communication  with  the  Central  States, 
commands  an  extensive  inland  trade,  while  its  long  coast  line  and 
convenient  harbors  afibrd  great  facilities  for  intercourse  with  foreign 
countries.  In  commerce  and  manufictures  it  is  second  only  to  New 
York ;  in  the  value  and  extent  of  its  fisheries  unsurpassed  by  any 
State  ;  and,  though  comparatively  small,  it  is  one  of  the  most  wealthy 
and  populous  States  in  the  Union. 

The  surface  of  the  western  part  of  the  State  is  broken  and  even 
mountainous.  In  the  beautiful  Connecticut  Valley  rise  Mount  Tom 
and  Mount  Holyoke,  so  familiar  in  stories  of  the  Indians  and  early 
settlers.  Wachusett  Mountain  is  an  isolated  peak  in  the  town  of 
Princeton. 

On  or  near  the  Connecticut  River  are  Deerfield  and  Northampton, 
surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery ;  Amherst,  the  seat  of  Amherst 
college ;  and  Holyoke  and  Hadley,  thriving  manufacturing  towns. 
Springfield  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Connecticut,  and  near  the  south- 
ern border  of  the  State,  is  crossed  by  two  principal  railroads,  contains 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Manchester  ?  Concord  ?  Nashua  ?  Portsmouth  ? 
What  is  said  of  Vermont  ?  Where  are  Bellows  Falls  ?  What  water  borders  on  Ver- 
mont ?  What  is  said  of  its  towns  and  manufactures  ?  Of  its  farms  and  productions  ? 
AVhat  is  the  capital  ?  What  and  where  are  the  other  chief  towns  ?  What  natural  ad- 
vantages has  Massachusetts  ?  How  does  it  compare  with  other  States  ?  Describe  the 
western  part  of  the  State.  What  towns  in  the  Connecticut  valley  ?  What  is  said  of 
Springfield  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


55 


important  manufacturing  establishments,  and  has  in  its  neighborhood 
large  lime-quarries.  The  United  States  armory  occupies  extensive 
grounds  and  employs  from  one  to  two  thousand  men.  Worcester,  a 
beautiful  city,  in  the  middle  of  the  State,  and  a  great  railroad  centre, 
carries  on  a  large  trade  and  extensive  manufactures.  From  Worcester 
eastward  to  the  populous  coast-region,  the  towns  and  villages  become 
more  numerous,  and  Boston,  the  great  seaport,  is  also  the  capital  and 
centre  of  population. 

Boston,  the  second  commercial  city  in  the  country,  is  situated  on 
a  fine  harbor  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  the  whole  shore  line  is  cov- 
ered with  wharves,  ship-yards,  foundries,  coal  and  lumber-yards,  etc. 
The  city  once  occupied  a  peninsula,  connected  with  the  mainland 
only  by  a  narrow  isthmus  known  as  "  Boston  Neck";  but  it  now 
includes  the  lesser  peninsula  of  South  Boston,  the  island  of  East  Bos- 
ton, and  the  towns  of  Roxbury,  on  the  southwest,  and  Dorchester, 
on  the  south,  which  have  been  annexed  recently.  The  peninsula  has 
been  much  enlarged  by  filling  up  the  bay,  into  which  Charles  River 
empties,  and  this  "  made  land  "  is  now  the  handsomest  part  of  the 
city,  containing  broad  streets,  fine  residences  and  churches,  and  the 
Public  Garden.  Boston  Common  and  Faneuil  Hall  are  associated 
with  the  earliest  history  of  the  city. 

In  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Boston  are  the  suburban  cities 
of  Charlestown,  containing  Bunker  Hill  Monument  and  a  United  States 
navy  yard,  Chelsea,  Somerville,  and  Cambridge,  the  seat  of  Harvard 
University,  the  oldest  college  in  America. 

North  of  Boston  is  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  districts  of 
New  England.  The  Merrimac  takes  its  lower  course  through  the 
northeastern  part  of  Massachusetts,  and  on  its  banks  are  the  busy 
towns  of  Lowell  and  Lawrence,  whose  immense  cotton  and  woollen 
mills  are  known  far  and  wide.  Haverhill,  farther  down  the  river, 
and  Ncwburyport,  at  its  mouth,  have  also  important  manufactures. 

Along  the  shore  toward  Cape  Ann  are  Lynn,  which  furnishes  a  large 
part  of  the  boots  and  shoes  made  in  the  country,  and  Salem,  which 
was  for  many  years  the  centre  of  the  lucrative  India  trade,  so  that 
its  very  name  became  suggestive  of  Java  coffee,  Cashmere  shawls. 
Canton  crepe,  and  East  Indian  curiosities.  As  Boston  and  New  York 
grew  up,  Salem  lost  its  monopoly,  and  its  India  trade  long  since  de- 
clined. Its  substantial  wealth,  however,  remains,  and  the  place  is 
remarkable  for  its  air  of  quiet  ease.  Near  Lynn  is  the  rocky  penin- 
sula of  Nahant.  Gloucester,  on  Cape  Ann,  is  an  important  fishing 
town,  engaged  chiefly  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries. 

Quincy,  south  of  Boston,  is  famous  for  its  great  granite  quarries, 
which  supply  almost  every  port  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Plymouth  is 
chiefly  interesting  as  the  oldest  New  England  settlement.  The  tra- 
ditional rock  where  the  Pilgrims  landed  is  carefully  preserved,  and 
relics  of  the  old  colonial  days  are  collected  in  Pilgrim  Hall.  Beyond 
Plymouth  extends  the  long  circular  peninsula  of  Cape  Cod,  with 
Provincetown,  another  important  fishing  town,  at  its  extremity. 
Sandwich  contains  the  largest  glass-works  in  the  United  States.  On 
Buzzards  Bay  stands  New  Bedford,  one  of  the  principal  whaling  ports 
on  the  coast ;  but  as  whales  have  become  scarce,  and  as  gas  and 
petroleum  have  so  generally  superseded  the  use  of  whale  oil  for  illu- 
minating purposes,  the  whaling  business  is  far  less  extensive  than 
formerly. 

Fall  River,  at  the  mouth  of  Taunton  River,  where  it  flows  into  Nar- 
ragansett  Bay,  has  a  most  favorable  situation,  and  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
Questions.  —  Of  Worcester  ?  Of  Boston  ?  What  towns  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
liorhood  of  Boston  ?  What  is  said  of  the  district  northeast  of  Boston  ?  What  towns 
on  the  Merrimac  and  for  what  noted  ?  What  is  said  of  Lynn  ?  Of  Salem  ?  Where 
is  Nahant  ?  Gloucester  ?  What  is  said  of  Quincy  ?  Of  Plymouth  ?  Sandwich  ? 
N'ew  Bedford  !     Fall  River  ? 


tensive  manufactures,  especially  of  iron  and  cotton.  Taunton,  some 
distance  up  the  river,  is  also  a  large  manufacturing  place,  containing 
extensive  locomotive  works.  Along  the  south  shore  of  Massachu- 
setts are  the  islands  of  Nantucket  and  Martha's  Vineyard.  Nan- 
tucket was  once  famous  for  its  whaling  business  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  which,  however,  has  almost  entirely  ceased. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Rhode  Island  is  the  smallest  State  in  the  Union,  but  its  looms  and 
spindles  are  kept  busy,  and,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  it  surpasses 
most  of  the  other  States  in  population  and  manufactures. 

Narragansett  Bay  runs  far  up  into  the  land,  making  a  long  coast 
line,  deeply  cut  by  picturesque  coves  and  inlets  ;  and  in  the  bay  are 
several  islands  belonging  to  the  State. 

Providence,  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  State,  and  the  second  city 
in  size  in  New  England,  is  situated  on  Providence  River,  or  an  arm 
of  Narragansett  Bay,  which  runs  through  the  city,  dividing  it  into 
two  parts  connected  by  bridges.  Steamboats  and  vessels  come  to 
the  heart  of  the  city,  and  the  streets  bordering  on  the  river  form  the 
business  centre.  The  two  parts  of  the  city  are  singularly  unlike. 
East  of  the  river  the  land  rises  abruptly,  and  the  upper  town,  known 
as  "  The  Hill,"  is  the  finest  part  of  Providence.  An  air  of  ease 
and  wealth  pervades  the  whole  neighborhood,  with  its  clean,  shady 
streets,  handsome  residences,  and  beautiful  grounds.  Brown  Uni- 
versity is  situated  here.  On  the  other  side  of  the  river  the  city 
stretches  away  through  crowded  streets  toward  pleasant  homes  sur- 
rounded with  lawns  and  gardens  ;  and  beyond  these  to  the  manufac- 
turing villages  of  the  suburbs.  Here  are  the  great  cotton  and 
woollen  mills,  the  rifle-factories,  and  print-works  which  supply  more 
than  two  million  dollars'  worth  of  calico  yearly.  An  immense 
amount  of  silver-plated  ware  is  made  in  this  city,  one  establish- 
ment employing  from  sixteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  workmen  ; 
and  screws  are  manufactured  for  the  whole  country.  It  was  at 
Providence  that  machinery  for  spinning  cotton  was  first  used  in 
America ;  and  the  Lonsdale  cottons  and  Gorham  plate  are  known 
far  and  wide. 

Pawtucket.  a  thriving  manufacturing  town,  stands  at  the  falls  of 
the  Pawtucket  River,  four  miles  from  Providence. 

Newport,  the  other  capital  of  the  State,  is  situated  on  the  island 
of  Rhode  Island  in  Narragansett  Bay,  and  has  a  fine  harbor,  safe  for 
large  ships  in  all  weather.  Its  spacious  beach  has  made  it  one  of  the 
most  fashionable  watering-places  in  the  United  States. 

Among  the  rocky  coves  of  Narragansett  Bay  are  pretty,  quiet  vil- 
lages and  beautiful  summer  residences.  * 

CONNECTICUT. 

Connecticut  is  one  of  the  most  thickly  settled  States  in  the  Union. 
Crossed  by  a  line  of  hills,  nowhere  too  high  for  cultivation,  the 
whole  surface  is  available,  and  is  covered  with  thriving  towns  and 
villages,  and  the  characteristic  white  farm-houses,  with  their  neat 
fences  and  barns.  The  soil,  excepting  along  the  rivers,  is  not  re- 
markably fertile,  and  in  such  a  thickly  settled  country  we  shall 
scarcely  expect  to  find  agriculture  a  leading  occupation.  There  are, 
however,  some  finely  cultivated  farms,  excellent  dairies  and  grazing 
land,  and  in  some  parts  tobacco  is  extensively  produced.     The  State 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Taunton  ?  What  islands  and  where  ?  What  is  said 
of  Rhode  Island  ?  Of  its  manufactures  ?  Of  Narragansett  Bay  ?  Describe  Provi- 
dence. What  are  its  manufactures  ?  Where  is  Pawtucket  ?  Describe  Newport. 
What  other  towns  ?    What  are  the  capitals  ?    What  is  said  of  Connecticut  f 


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58 


OUR  WORLD. 


one  of  the  grandest  cataracts  in  the  world.  The  neighborhood  is 
destitute  of  the  picturesque  wood  and  mountain  scenery  often  accom- 
panying waterfalls,  and  there  are  other  falls  of  a  greater  height,  but 
nowhere  is  such  a  tremendous  mass  of  water  precipitated  in  one 
vast  sheet. 

The  Hudson,  or  "  North  River,"  rises  near  Mount  Marcy,  the 
highest  peak  of  the  Adirondacs,  and  flows  southward  between  the 
Catskill   and  Taconic   ranges   into  Long  Island  Sound.     Its  lower 


Scene  on  the  Hudson. 

course  is  between  the  wild  and  picturesque  cliffs  known  as  the 
Highlands.  In  this  beautiful  region,  high  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
river,  is  situated  West  Point,  the  United  States  military  school, 
where  young  men  may  receive  such  education  and  training  as  will 
fit  them  for  soldiers.  In  addition  to  its  natural  charms,  the  banks  of 
the  Hudson  are  adorned  with  picturesque  cottages  and  elegant  villas. 

The  Adirondacs  in  the  north  and  the  Catskills  in  the  south  are  sep- 
arated by  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  River,  which  enters  the  Hudson 
at  Troy. 

Cities.  —  New  York,  the  largest  city  in  America  and  the  great 
commercial  seaport  of  our  country,  is  situated  at  the  southeast  ex- 
tremity of  the  State,  on  the  long,  narrow  island  of  Manhattan.  This 
island,  thirteen  miles  long  and  less  than  three  miles  wide,  lies  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson,  separated  from  the  main-land  on  the  north  by 
Harlem  River,  and  from  Long  Island  by  the  narrow  channel  called 
East  River. 

The  west  end  of  Long  Island  extends  nearly  to  Staten  Island,  which 
lies  off  the  Jersey  coast,  and  the  strait  between  the  islands  is  known 
as  the  "  Narrows."  This  strait  forms  the  opening  from  the  Atlantic 
into  New  York  Bay,  which  receives  the  waters  of  the  Hudson.  The 
harbor  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  ships  line  the  wharves 
on  both  sides  of  the  city  for  three  miles  up  the  Hudson  and  East 
Rivers,  forming  a  forest  of  masts  and  cordage.  Opposite  the  city 
on  the  Long  Island  shore  is  Brooklyn,  a  large  and  prosperous  city, 
but  often  regarded  as  a  suburb  of  New  York,  and  soon  to  be  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  suspension  bridge  of  a  single  span.  Opposite 
New  York  on  the  Jersey  shore  are  Hoboken  and  Jersey  City,  reached 
by  ferry-boats  across  the  Hudson. 

New  York  is  a  cosmopolitan  city,  having  a  vast  trade  with  all 
parts  of  the  world,  a  large  foreign  element  in  its  population,  and  a 
flood  of  immigration  pouring  in  at  Castle  Garden,  on  the  Battery, 
once  a  favorite  resort,  to  spread  itself  over  the  whole  country.  The 
city  has  increased  in  population  more  than  twelvefold  during  the 


Questions.  —  Describe  the  Hudson.     How  is  New  York, 
Manhattan  Island  surrounded  ?    Describe  the  city.  ^' 


situited  ?    How  is 


last  half  century,  and  has  extended  its  limits  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
Battery  through  nearly  the  whole  of  the  island.  Business  has  con- 
tinually invaded  the  quarters  of  desirable  residences,  compelling  the 
citizens  to  seek  quiet  homes  farther  "  up  town,"  till  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Central  Park  is  becoming  the  most  fashionable  part  of  the 
city,  and  the  whole  upper  part  of  the  island  is  being  filled  with 
costly  residences,  so  that  the  population  of  moderate  means  over- 
flows into  New  Jersey,  Long  Island,  and  other  suburbs.  Broadway, 
the  great  thoroughfare,  six  miles  long,  contains  many  of  the  large 
hotels  and  stores,  and  is  extended  by  the  new  Boulevard  far  up  the 
island.  Fifth  Avenue,  which  has  been  called  a  street  of  palaces,  is 
fast  becoming  a  business  locality.  The  once  beautiful  park  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  city  is  now  occupied  with  the  City  Hall  and  other 
public  buildings.  Trinity  Church,  dating  back  to  colonial  times, 
rears  its  tall  spire  and  rings  its  chimes  at  the  head  of  Wall  Street, 
the  great  financial  centre,  where  millions  pass  from  hand  to  hand 
daily,  and  fortunes  are  often  made  or  lost  in  a  few  hours.  The 
churches,  hotels,  theatres,  banks,  and  business-houses  are  numerous 
and  costly.  There  are  many  benevolent,  literary,  and  scientific  in- 
stitutions, among  which  may  be  mentioned  Cooper  Institute,  founded" 
by  an  eminent  merchant  whose  name  it  bears,  and  designed  for  the 
free  education  of  the  people  in  practical  arts  and  sciences,  and 
Astor  Library,  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the  country,  the  gift  of 
another  wealthy  citizen. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Croton  Water-works,  by 
an  underground  aqueduct  forty  miles  long. 

Central  Park,  the  finest  in  the  country,  is  two  and  a  half  miles  long 
and  about  half  a  mile  broad,  and  one  of  the  most  successful  examples 
of  landscape-gardening  in  the  world. 

On  or  near  the  Hudson. — Albany,  the  capital,  is  on  the  direct 
line  of  railroad  communication  between  Boston  and  the  West.  Troy 
is  just  above  Albany,  and  Saratoga  is  a  short  distance  west  of  the 
river.  Ticonderoga,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  George,  is 
famous  as  a  battle-field  during  the  Revolution. 

On  or  near  the  Central  Railroad.  — Schenectady  and  Utica  are  on 
the  Mohawk.  Syracuse  is  in  the  midst  of  the  salt  region.  Oswego, 
on  Lake  Ontario,  is  a  thriving  grain  port.  Rochester,  with  its  ex- 
tensive flour  mills,  is  at  the  falls  of  the  Genesee  River.  Buffalo,  the 
terminus  of  canal  and  railroad  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Erie,  is  a  great 
thoroughfare  of  travel  and  transportation. 

Ogdensburg,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  receives  large  importations  of 
grain  from  Canada.  Ithaca,  at  the  head  of  Cayuga  Lake,  is  the  seat 
of  Cornell  University. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

The  northern  part  of  the  State  is  broken  and  hilly,  and  the  steep 
wall  of  rock  known  as  the  "Palisades"  borders  the  Hudson  on  the 
Jersey  side  above  New  York  City. 

South  of  Staten  Island  Raritan  River  flows  into  a  bay  of  the  same 
name,  at  the  entrance  of  which  is  Sandy  Hook.  Southward  from 
this  point  extends  the  well-known  beach  of  Long  Branch,  a  fash- 
ionable resort  of  the  New  York  people.  Cape  May,  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  State,  at  the  mouth  of  Delaware  Bay,  is  another 
watering-place  much  frequented  by  Philadelphians.  The  southern 
portion  of  the  State  is  a  great  sandy  swamp,  overgrown  with  cedar, 
pitch-pine,   and  oak.     South  of  Long  Island  the   character  of  the 

Questions.  —  What  cities  and  towns  on  or  near  the  Hudson  ?  Where  is  Buffalo  ? 
Kochester  ?  Mention  other  central  towns.  What  is  said  of  New  Jersey  ?  Where  is 
Sandy  Hook  ?     Long  Branch  ?     Cape  May  ? 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


59 


Atlantic  coast  changes,  becoming  low,  flat,  and  sandy,  and  in  this 
respect  New  Jersey  belongs  with  the  States  of  the  Southern  section. 
The  coast  is  fringed  with  sandbars  and  islets,  and  is  entirely  desti- 
tute of  the  good  harbors  found  farther  north.  There  are  conse- 
quently no  large  seaports,  and  the  commerce  of  the  State  is  carried 
on  through  New  York.  Much  of  the  land  is  under  cultivation,  pro- 
ducing wheat,  and  especially  vegetables  and  fruits.  New  Jersey  has 
been  called  the  "Garden  State."  Extensive  tracts  contain  beds  of 
tlie  well-known  "Jersey  marl,"  regarded  by  agriculturists  as  one 
of  the  best  fertilizers,  and  from  the  productive  lands  of  this  State 
the  New  York  markets  are  largely  supplied.  Clay  of  a  peculiar 
quality  is  also  found  here,  excellent  for  making  pottery,  which  is 
largely  manufactured.  Iron  is  abundant,  and  machinery,  hardware, 
and  all  the  varieties  of  ironwork  form  the  principal  manufactures  of 
the  State.  The  leather  manufactures  are  scarcely  less  varied  than 
those  of  iron  ;   and  trunks,  harnesses,  etc.,  are  extensively  exported. 

Cities.  —  Trenton,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  Delaware  River,  and 
is  noted  for  great  foundries,  rolling-mills,  rifle-works,  sword,  gun, 
and  wire-rope  factories ;  some  of  them  the  largest  of  their  kind  in 
the  United  States. 

Paterson  manufactures  Cottons  and  woollens,  beside  making  nearly 
half  the  locomotives  used  in  the  country.  In  its  vicinity  are  the 
falls  of  the  Passaic  River. 

Newark  is  the  principal  city  of  the  State,  and  the  centre  of  the 
leather  manufactures.     Princeton  is  noted  chiefly  for  its  college. 

DELAWARE. 

Delaware,  the  smallest  State  in  the  Union  except  Rhode  Island, 
is  very  similar  to  New  Jersey  in  soil,  climate,  coast  line,  and  pro- 
ductions ;  that  is  to  say,  it  has  no  harbors,  and  little  commerce,  but 
fine  crops  of  wheat,  vegetables,  peaches,  etc.  The  kaoline,  or  white 
clay,  found  in  the  northern  part,  supplies  the  stoneware  factories  of 
Philadelphia.  In  the  south  is  a  cypress  swamp,  overgrown  with 
shrubs  and  evergreens,  and  abounding  in  reptiles  and  noxious  in- 
sects. Cape  Hcnlopen  is  the  southern  extremity  of  the  low,  marshy 
shores  of  Delaware  Bay.  The  manufacturing  district  is  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  State  around  Brandywine  Creek,  of  Revolutionary 
fame.  Wilmington,  on  a  hill  near  this  stream,  is  noted  for  the  manu- 
facture of  steam-engines,  and  also  for  its  flour-mills.  Dover,  a  small 
place,  is  only  important  as  the  capital  of  the  State. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Pennsylvania  is  a  large,  populous  State  ;  and,  beside  the  thickly 
peopled  manufacturing  districts,  there  are  ample  farm-lands  for  the 
cultivation  of  wheat,  rye,  and  buckwheat,  and  for -the  raising  of  live- 
stock. Mining,  however,  is  the  specialty  of  this  State,  which  con- 
tains extensive  iron-mines  and  vast  beds  of  coal,  both  anthracite  and 
bituminous. 

Tlie  central  part  of  the  State  is  crossed  by  the  ridges  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  which  form  here  the  broadest  portion  of  the  Appalachian 
system.  This  beautiful  and  romantic  region  is  traversed  by  the  main 
routes  of  travel,   and  the  picturesque  beauty  of  wooded  summits, 

Questions.  —  "What  is  said  of  the  coast  ?  Of  soil  and  cultivation  ?  What  is  marl  ? 
What  other  resources  has  the  State  ?  What  is  said  of  Trenton  ?  Of  Paterson  ? 
N'ewark  ?  Princeton  ?  What  is  said  of  Delaware  ?  Of  Its  resources  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  cypress  swamp  ?  What  capes  at  the  opening  of  Delaware  Bay  ?  AVhere  is  the 
manufacturing  region  ?  What  is  said  of  Wilmington  1  Of  Dover  1  What  is  said  of 
Pennsylvania  ? 


deep  valleys,  winding  streams,  and  waterfalls  is  perhaps  increased 
by  the  canals  and  roads  which  follow  stream  and  valley,  and  by  the 
bridges  which  span  the  ravines.  The  Susquehanna,  a  river  of  great 
length,  rises  far  northward,  in  New  York,  and  takes  a  devious  course 
through  Pennsylvania  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  Juniata  flows  east- 
ward into  the  Susquehanna,  through  a  region  of  great  beauty.  The 
point  where  the  Delaware  breaks  through  the  Blue  Ridge,  known  as 
tlie  Water  Gap,  is  famed  for  its  bold  scenery.  The  river  rushes 
through  a  deep  gorge  between  perpendicular  cliffs  more  than  a  thou- 
sand feet  high.  The  Delaware  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
State,  and  receives  the  Schuylkill  at  Philadelphia.  In  the  west  the 
Alleghany  River,  flowing  from  the  north,  and  the  Monongahcla,  from 
the  south,  unite  to  form  the  Ohio,  thus  opening  navigation  to  the 
Mississippi. 

In  Western  Pennsylvania  are  the  vast  bituminous  coal-fields,  where 
thirty-five  thousand  men,  and  the  capital  of  more  than  fifty  mining 
companies  are  employed  in  obtaining  coal  from  the  Monongahela 
lands.  Few  mining  products  are  so  valuable  as  coal,  which  is  not 
only  used  as  fuel  for  household  and  manufacturing  purposes,  but  for 
making  gas  to  light  our  cities.  Even  the  coal  tar,  or  refuse  after 
mailing  gas  from  bituminous  coal,  which  was  formerly  considered 
useless,  is  now  mixed  with  gravel  for  roofs,  sidewalks,  etc.  More- 
over, by  distillation,  it  is  made  to  produce  beautiful  colors,  — mauve, 
magenta,  purple,  etc.,  ■ —  and  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  is  made 
to  yield  agreeable  perfumes. 

Iron  is  also  obtained  in  abundance  from  this  region,  and  an  immense 
quantity  is  used  annually  in  the  various  iron  manufactures,  in  which 
Pennsylvania  surpasses  every  other  State. 

In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State  is  the  famous  Pennsylvania 
"oil-region,"  where  springs  of.rock-oil,  or  petroleum,  have  been  dis- 
covered within  the  last  few  j'ears.  The  gold  of  California  scarcely 
made  a  greater  sensation  throughout  our  country  than  the  discovery 
of  this  oil  floating  on  the  surface  of  streams,  or  oozing  out  from  the 
earth  in  the  coal  regions.  Lands  that  had  been  almost  worthless  were 
sold  for  large  sums,  and  machinery  was  arranged  for  boring  to  great 
depths  in  search  of  the  oil.  Some  persons  made,  in  a  short  time, 
fortunes  that  seemed  fabulous  ;  but  others  lost,  and  gradually  the 
great  oil-excitement  has  subsided  into  a  regular  industrial  pursuit, 
in  which  many  persons  find  employment.  An  immense  amount 
of  petroleum  is  consumed  in  our  own  country,  and  a  large  quan- 
tity is  exported.  In  1871  fifty  thousand  gallons  were  sent  to 
England  alone.     Various  qualities  of  oils,  kerosene,  paraflSne,  etc.. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  rivers  ?    Of  the  coal  region  ?    Of  iron  ! 
oil  region  ? 


Of  the 


60 


OTJR  WORLD. 


are  distilled  from  the  petroleum  ;  some  for  illuminating  purposes, 
and  others  for  lubricating  machinery.  Solid  purafBne  resembles 
the  purest  white  wax,  and  is  manufactured  into  candles.  Though 
so  recently  employed  in  this  country,  petroleum  was  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  is  still  obtained  in  the  region  about  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  in  India.  In  a  fluid  state  it  was  formerly  known  as  naphtha, 
but  when  thick,  like  tar,  it  was  called  asphaltum. 

Titusville  and  Oil  City,  on  the  Alleghany  River,  are  the  centre  of 
the  Pennsylvania  oil-region  ;  but  petroleum  is  also  found  in  the 
neighboring  coal-lands  of  Ohio  and  Virginia. 

Salt  is  also  obtained  by  boring  in  the  coal  formation. 

Extensive  quarries  of  white  marble  in  this  State  supply  the  cities 
with  building  material. 

Cities.  —  Pittsburg,  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monon- 
gahela,  is  the  shipping  port  of  coal  for  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the 
centre  of  the  iron  manufactures.  Here  are  numerous  establishments 
for  making  nails,  rivets,  cutlery,  and  machinery  ;  and  an  immense 
cannon  foundry  supplies  the  United  States  government.  More  than 
three  hundred  steam-engines  are  made  yearly,  and  steamboats  are 
built  here  for  the  Southern  and  Western  rivers.    The  city  of  Pittsburg 


Pittsburg. 

occupies  the  point  between  the  two  rivers  ;  and  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  Alleghany  the  suburbs  have  grown  into  quite  a  large  town 
called  Alleghany  City. 

On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Monongahela  stands  the  American 
Birmingham,  black  and  grim  with  iron-works.  Rising  on  the  steep 
slope  are  great  foundries,  with  their  massive  forges  and  furnaces 
glowing  night  and  day,  the  dense  smoke  of  the  bituminous  coal  roll- 
ing up  from  the  tall  chimneys,  and  resting  in  a  heavy  cloud  over  the 
whole  region. 

Philadelphia,  the  seat  of  the  first  Congress,  is  only  surpassed  by 
New  York  in  population.  The  city  is  situated  on  a  plain  at  the 
junction  of  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  Rivers  ;  and,  though  more 
than  sixty  miles  from  the  ocean,  has  all  the  advantages  of  a  sea- 
port, with  a  tide  flowing  from  Delaware  Bay  into  both  rivers.  The 
suburbs  extend  beyond  the  two  rivers,  forming  Camden,  east  of 
the  Delaware,  and  West  Philadelphia,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Schuylkill.  Low  hills  rise  on  the  north  of  the  city,  covered  with 
populous  manufacturing  villages  and  handsome  residences.  The 
city  was  regularly  laid  out  in  squares  by  its  founder,  William  Penn. 
Streets  extend  from  river  to  river,  and  are  crossed  by  others  at  right 
angles.  Chestnut  Street  is  the  fashionable  shopping  promenade, 
corresponding  to  Broadway  in  New  York.  Strangers  are  especially 
attracted  by  the  grounds  of  the  Fairmount  Water-works,  and  by  the 
quiet  beauty  of  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery,  directly  on  the  river-bank. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  about  petroleum  in  the  Old  World  ?    Of  salt  and  mar- 
ble ?    Describe  Pittsburg.     Describe  Philadelphia. 


Girard  College,  endowed  by  Stephen  Girard  for  the  education  of 
orphan  boys,  is  built  of  white  marble  and  modelled  after  the  Grecian 
Parthenon.  Here  also  is  the  United  States  Mint.  Philadelphia  is 
engaged  in  commerce  and  manufactures,  and  carries  on  a  busy  trade 
with  the  interior. 

Harrisburg,  on  the  Susquehanna,  below  the  junction  with  the 
Juniata,  is  the  capital  of  the  State. 

Reading  and  Lancaster  are  thriving  towns. 


THE  SOUTHERN   SECTION. 

This  portion  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  extends  south  from  Pennsylva- 
nia, including  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
and  Florida. 

The  character  of  the  country  south  of  Pennsylvania  changes  per- 
ceptibly. 

The  coast  is  low,  flat,  and  marshy,  bordered  with  shoals,  sand- 
bars, and  low,  sandy  islands,  enclosing  shallow  bays,  and  aflbrds  few 
good  harbors.  The  names  of  Cape  Fear  and  Cape  Lookout  are  sig- 
nificant of  the  dangers  of  navigation  along  the  Carolina  shore,  and 
no  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  more  dreaded  than  the  neighborhood 
of  Cape  Hatteras,  which  is  the  eastern  point  of  a  long  sand-bar  en- 
closing Albemarle  and  Pamlico  Sounds. 

Lovrlands.  —  As  the  mountains  turn  westward  from  the  shore  the 
belt  of  coast  land  becomes  broader,  lower,  and  more  marshy.  The 
cypress  swamps,  that  in  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  succeeded  the 
marshes  and  ponds  of  New  England,  become  farther  south  still  more 
extensive.  Nothing  can  be  more  dreary  than  these  immense  swamps, 
covering  miles  of  country,  sometimes  overgrown  with  rank  grass  or 
herbage,  but  mostly  filled  with  tall  pines,  cedars,  and  cypress-trees, 
their  half-bare  roots  soaking  in  the  foul,  black  water,  and  the  long, 
gray  moss,  peculiar  to  the  Southern  coast  country,  hanging  from  their 
boughs.  A  most  unwholesome  atmosphere  exhales  from  the  reeking 
soil  and  decaying  vegetation,  especially  during  the  summer.  Reptiles 
are  numerous,  and  in  the  more  southern  States  alligators  abound  in 
the  slimy  mud.  These  swamps  are  often  impassable,  except  where 
occasional  strips  of  firm  land  serve  as  pathways.  In  the  Great  Dis- 
mal Swamp  a  canal  is  used  for  the  transportation  of  lumber.  These 
swamp-forests  supply  an  abundance  of  timber ;  and  large  tracts  of 
drained  land  yield  fine  crops  of  rice  and  cotton.  The  rivers  creep 
sluggishly  through  the  swamps  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  choking  the 
shallow  bays  with  sand  and  mud,  and  are  navigable  only  for  small 
vessels. 

As  the  maple  and  elm  are  characteristic  of  the  Northern  States, 
so  in  these  Southern  lowlands  the  eye  becomes  familiar  with  the 
beautiful  sweet-gum  tree  and  the  dark,  glossy  foliage  of  the  live  or 
water  oak  near  the  farm-houses,  in  the  marshes,  and  along  the  rivers. 
The  gray,  or  Spanish  moss,  which,  however,  is  not  a  moss,  but  a 
plant  of  the  pine-apple  family,  named  Tillandsia,  is  a  still  more  strik- 
ing peculiarity  of  the  vegetation.  Drooping  from  the  boughs  of  the 
swamp-forests,  it  adds  to  the  dreary,  mournful  efi"ect  of  the  scenery ; 
but  hanging  from  the  branches  of  an  avenue  of  live-oaks,  it  gives 
a  graceful,  weird  beauty  to  the  foliage.  Palmettoes  are  found  in 
the  extreme  South. 

Hill-country.  —  The  western  limit  of  the  lowlands  is  the  ledge 
which  marks  the  head  of  tide-water  in  the  rivers,  and  runs  through 

Questions.  —  What  is  the  capital  of  the  State  ?  What  other  towns  are  men- 
tioned ?  What  States  are  included  in  the  Southem  section  ?  Describe  the  coast. 
Describe  the  lowlands.  The  swamps.  What  is  said  of  the  rivers  ?  What  are  th« 
characteristic  trees  ?    Where  are  forests  found  ?    What  mountains  in  the  West  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


61 


Richmond,  Raleigh,  Columbia,  Augusta,  etc.  Here  begins  the  hill- 
country  with  its  pleasant  valleys,  farms,  and  healthy  uplands  ;  and, 
farther  inland  still,  are  the  mountain  ranges,  — the  Blue  Ridge,  Al- 
leghanies,  Cumberland  Mountains,  and  others,  interspersed  with  deep 
ravines,  caverns,  mineral  springs,  and  coal-beds. 

Inhabitants  and  occupations.  —  The  States  of  this  section  were 
formerly  Slave  States,  and  have  a  large  colored  population.  Before 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  in  1865,  education  was  confined  mostly  to 
the  higher  classes.  Not  only  were  the  slaves  kept  in  ignorance,  but 
the  poorer  whites  often  could  not  even  read  or  write.  Now,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  general  eagerness  for  knowledge  and  improvement, 
and  public  schools  are  established  in  several  of  the  States.  Many 
of  the  former  slaves  have  become  land-owners,  and  are  beginning  to 
realize  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizens. 

In  this  Southern  section  agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  rice  ;  and,  in  the  uplands,  grain.  Instead  of  the 
large,  busy,  commercial  cities  of  the  North,  there  are  found  small  and 
quiet  towns,  and  the  large  plantations  which  give  the  country  a  thinly 
settled  appearance.  Most  of  the  field-labor  is  performed  by  the  col- 
ored population. 

Manufactures  are  increasing  in  some  places,  especially  around 
Baltimore,  Richmond,  and  Charleston  ;  and  there  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  lumber,  and  in  the  pitch  and  tar  obtained  from  the  pine  woods. 

Quito  a  coasting  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  small  vessels,  and 
within  the  last  few  years  foreign  commerce  has  increased. 

Throughout  this  Southern  country  the  large  forests,  the  uninhabit- 
able swamps,  the  isolated  houses  of  the  planters,  the  cabins  of  the 
laborers,  and  the  peculiar  vegetation,  all  render  the  scenery  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  Northern  States. 


MARYLAND. 

West  Maryland,  or  the  narrow  tract  between  the  Potomac  River 
and  Pennsylvania,  is  a  wild,  mountainous  region,  crossed  by  the  Al- 
leghanies ;  and,  being  directly  in  the  great  coal  region,  it  supplies 
coal  and  iron  for  manufactures  of  considerable  importance.  The 
little  mountain  town  of  Cumberland  is  the  centre  of  the  coal  trade. 

The  main  portion  of  the  State  is  almost  divided  by  Chesapeake 
Bay,  which  reaches  nearly  to  Pennsylvania,  receiving  there  the  waters 
of  the  Susquehanna  River.  The  low,  marshy  shores  of  the  bay  af- 
foid  few  harbors  beside  that  of  Baltimore  ;  and  the  eastern  coast  is 
fringed  with  sand-bars.  Its  reedy  shores  abound  with  a  species  of 
wild  duck,  regarded  as  a  great  delicacy  in  the  neighboring  markets  ; 
and  oysters  are  obtained  in  large  quantities  along  its  coves  and  in- 
lets, and  shipped  at  Baltimore. 

The  city  of  Baltimore  is  situated  near  the  head  of  the  bay,  on  an 
arm  of  Patapsco  River,  where  it  has  all  the  advantages  of  a  seaport. 
The  appearance  of  the  city  is  striking  and  picturesque,  and  its  streets 
are  wide,  regular,  and  neat.  The  city  was  named  for  Lord  Baltimore, 
the  founder  of  the  Roman  Catholic  colony  in  Maryland,  and  many  of 
the  present  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics. 

Baltimore  is  reckoned  among  our  great  commercial  cities,  and  has 
large  manufactures. 

Annapolis,  farther  down  the  bay,  is  the  capital  of  the  State,  and 
contains  the  United  States  Naval  School. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  ?  What  is  the  chief  occupation  ? 
What  are  cultivated  ?  What  is  said  of  manufactures  ?  Trade  ?  What  is  said  of  tlie 
appearance  of  the  country  ?  Wliat  is  said  of  West  Maryland  ?  Of  Chesapeake  Bay  ? 
What  is  exported  from  its  shores  ?    Describe  Baltimore.     What  is  said  of  Annapolis  ? 


DISTRICT   OF   COLUMBIA. 

This  District  occupies  an  area  of  sixty  square  miles  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Potomac,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  General  Government  of 
the  United  States.  Like  the  other  Territories,  it  has  a  governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  a  legislature  elected  by  the  people,  and  a 
delegate  in  Congress  who  can  take  part  in  debates,  but  cannot  vote. 

The  G-eneral  Government.  —  The  American  colonies,  having 
asserted  their  independence,  formed  a  republic  of  States,  agreeing 
to  unite  under  a  federal  government,  which  should  direct  all  affairs 
relating  to  the  welfare  of  the  whole  country,  while  each  State  should 
make  its  own  laws  and  regulate  its  local  affairs.  Delegates  from  the 
colonies  assembled  at  Philadelphia  in  lt87,  and  drew  up  a  form  of 
government,  which  was  finally  adopted  as  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States;  and,  in  1789,  George  Washington  was  inaugurated 
the  first  President  under  it. 

By  the  conditions  of  this  constitution,  the  government  is  divided 
into  three  branches,  the  legislative,  the  executive,  and  the  judicial. 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  Congress,  which  comprises  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives.  Two  senators  are  chosen  by 
the  legislature  of  each  State  to  serve  for  a  terra  of  six  years  ;  and 
representatives,  proportioned  in  number  to  the  population  of  each 
State,  are  chosen  by  the  people  to  serve  for  two  years. 

The  President  represents  the  executive  department,  and  is  chosen 
to  serve  as  chief  magistrate  for  a  terra  of  four  years.  If  his  rule  is 
acceptable  he  may  be  re-elected. 

The  judicial  department  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court,  whose  judges 
are  appointed  for  life,  and  of  inferior  courts  in  the  several  States. 

The  President  has  the  power,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  of 
appointing  a  Secretary  of  State,  a  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  a  Sec- 
retary of  War,  a  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  a  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
a  Postmaster-General,  and  an  Attorney-General,  who  preside  over 
the  various  departments  of  the  government  and  form  the  "Cabinet." 

Ministers,  and  other  representatives  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, are  sent  to  foreign  countries  to  watch  over  the  interests  of 
the  nation,  and  of  American  merchants,  travellers,  and  citizens. 

The  people  of  each  State  choose  a  governor  and  legislators  to  direct 
the  local  government,  and  an  assembly,  or  legislature,  is  held  in  one 
of  the  cities,  which  is  called  the  capital  of  the  State.  As  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  this  place  of  meeting  accessible  to  the  greatest  number 
of  inhabitants,  the  capital  is  generally  selected  as  near  the  centre 
of  population  as  possible,  without  regard  to  other  advantages  ;  hence 
it  is  often  a  city  of  much  less  size  and  importance  than  others  in  the 
State.  Some  States  have  two  capitals,  the  legislature  meeting  alter- 
nately at  each. 

There  is  also  one  central  capital  for  the  general  United  States  gov- 
ernment, where  the  President  and  other  oiBcers  reside,  where  public 
buildings  are  provided  for  the  transaction  of  governraent  business  in 
its  various  departments,  and  where  Congress  meets. 

Philadelphia  was  the  first  capital  of  the  United  States,  but  since 
1800  Washington  has  been  the  permanent  seat  of  government. 

The  Capital.  —  The  city  of  Washington  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Potomac,  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  its 


Questions.  —  Where  is  the  District  of  Columbia?  What  kind  of  government 
was  formed  by  the  colonies  ?  What  are  the  three  branches  of  the  government  ? 
Which  branch  does  Congress  represent  ?  How  are  senators  chosen  ?  How  are  repre- 
sentatives chosen  ?  Who  is  the  chief  ruler,  and  how  chosen  ?  What  constitutes  the 
judicial  department  ?  What  other  government  officers  are  associated  with  the  Presi- 
dent ?  What  are  the  duties  of  United  States  niinisters  ?  Describe  the  government 
of  each  State.  What  is  the  capital  of  a  State  t  What  is  said  of  the  national 
capital ? 


62 


OUR  WORLD. 


mouth.     It  spreads  over  a  large  area  in  proportion  to  its  population, 
and  is  called  the  "  City  of  magnificent  distances." 


The  Capitol. 

Tlie  streets  running  in  one  direction  are  named  from  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  while  those  which  cross  at  right  angles  are  numbered. 
Broad  avenues  intersect  tliese  streets  diagonally,  converging  toward 
the  diflferent  public  buildings  and  bearing  the  names  of  States. 
Pennsylvania  Avenue  is  the  great  thoroughfare  through  the  city,  and 
leads  from  the  Capitol  to  the  President's  house.  The  beautiful  white 
marble  Capitol,  with  its  great  dome  seen  from  afar,  and  its  numerous 
columns,  is  surrounded  by  a  park  of  thirty-five  acres. 

The  White  House,  as  the  residence  of  the  President  is  called,  is 
also  surrounded  by  pleasant  grounds,  with  a  lawn  sloping  toward  the 
river.  In  its  vicinity  are  the  buildings  of  the  War,  Navy,  and  Treas- 
ury Departments.  One  of  the  attractions  of  the  city  is  the  Patent 
Office,  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  which  contains  interesting 
collections  of  curious  productions,  manufactures,  etc.,  and  also  mod- 
els of  all  American  inventions  offered  for  Patent. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  is  devoted  to  the  extension  of  useful 
knowledge,  by  means  of  lectures,  scientific  observations,  and  the 
publication  of  books. 

Washington  is  surpassed  by  many  of  our  cities  in  musical,  artistic, 
and  literary  advantages,  but  has  uncommon  facilities  for  a  brilliant 
and  varied  society.  Not  only  do  the  President  and  other  government 
officials  reside  here,  but  also  the  ministers  from  foreign  courts.  While 
Congress  is  in  session  there  is  a  rapid  succession  of  balls,  parties, 
dinners,  and  receptions  ;  but  with  the  close  of  the  session  this  social 
excitement  suddenly  ceases,  and  dulness  settles  over  the  city.  The 
great  peculiarity  of  social  life  at  Washington  is  its  want  of  stability  ; 
the  same  set  of  people  meet  together  for  a  few  years,  and  then  the 
President,  senators,  representatives,  and  foreign  ministers,  having 
completed  their  terms  of  service,  vanish  with  their  families  and  are 
replaced  by  new  officials.     Georgetown  is  a  suburb  of  the  capital. 

Questions.  —  How  is  Washington  situated  ?  Describe  the  city.  What  are  the 
principal  public  buildings  ?  What  advantages  has  the  city  ?  What  is  said  of  society? 
What  other  city  in  the  District  of  Columbia  1 


VIRGINIA. 

Virginia  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  Atlantic 
States,  possessing  an  unusual  variety  of  natural  charms  and  advan- 
tages. In  the  valleys  and  river-bottoms  fine  crops  of  wheat  are  grown, 
and  more  tobacco  is  raised  than  in  any  other  State.  Though  farming 
is  the  principal  occupation  throughout  this  State,  the  great  coal-beds 
and  iron-mines  give  employment  to  large  numbers. 

The  commercial  and  manufacturing  interests  belong  chiefly  to  the 
eastern  part  of  the  State,  which  is  crossed  by  the  Potomac,  James, 
and  Rappahannock  Rivers.  Chesapeake  Bay,  running  up  into  the 
low  coast  country,  affords  some  facilities  for  commerce.  Norfolk  has 
one  of  the  few  good  harbors  south  of  Baltimore. 

Richmond,  the  chief  city  and  capital  of  the  State,  is  beautifully 
situated  oir  James  River,  where  the  upland  country  begins.  The 
deep  bed  of  the  river  crossed  by  long  bridges,  and  the  abrupt  hill- 
sides make  a  striking  approach  to  the  city.  Numerous  flour-mills 
and  tobacco-factories  form  the  chief  wealth  of  the  place,  but  there 
are  also  some  manufactures. 

On  the  Potomac,  some  distance  below  Washington,  stands  Mount 
Vernon,  the  residence  of  our  first  president,  George  Washington. 

The  whole  central  portion  of  the  State  is  traversed  from  northeast 
to  southwest  by  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  Blue  Ridge.  This  is 
the  region  of  coal-beds,  iron-mines,  caves,  mineral-springs,  rapids, 
ravines,  and  romantic  glens  and  gorges.  The  far-famed  sulphur 
springs  of  Virginia,  including  the  White  Sulphur,  Hot  and  Warm 
Springs,  Winchester,  and  others,  are  scattered  over  the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  between  the  Alleghanics  and  the  Blue  Ridge.  Weir's  Cave, 
one  of  the  beautiful  caverns  i'ound  in  limestone  formations,  is  only 


The  N'atiiral  Bridge. 

second  in  size  to  the  Mammoth    Cave   of  Kentucky.     The  famous 
Natural  Bridge  of  Virginia  is  an  arch  of  stone  of  great  height  over 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Virginia  ?  Wliat  natural  advantages  ?  Where  is 
the  manufacturing  di.strict  ?  Describe  Richmond.  Where  is  Jfount  Vernon  ?  De- 
scribe the  central  portion  of  the  State.  Describe  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  What 
natural  curiosities  in  Virginia  ?    Where  is  the  Natural  Bridge  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


63 


a  little  stream  flowing  into  James   River,  just  west  of  the   Blue 
Ridge. 

In  the  northeastern  extremity  of  this  beautiful  valley  is  the  grand 
view  of  Harper's  Ferry,  where  the  Potomac  forces  a  passage  through 
the  Blue  Ridge  at  the  mouth  of  the  Shenandoah. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

The  northwest  portion  of  the  "  Old  Dominion,"  between  the  Al- 
leghany Mountains  and  Ohio  River,  during  the  late  civil  war  be- 
came a  separate  State,  known  as  West  Virginia.  The  valley  of  the 
Kanawha  abounds  with  coal  and  salt  mines,  and  the  great  oil-region 
of  West  Pennsylvania  continues  through  this  State.  The  Ohio 
River  opens  West  Virginia  to  the  central  trade  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  affording  easy  communication  with  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  St. 
Louis,  and  New  Orleans.  Wheeling,  the  chief  city,  holds  an  impor- 
tant position  on  the  Ohio.  Charleston,  the  capital,  on  the  Great 
Kanawha  River,  is  noted  for  its  salt  works.  Other  towns  are  grow- 
ing rapidly. 

[Take  Map  Studies  here.     (See  page  65.)] 

THE  CAROLINAS. 

In  the  Carolinas  we  find  all  the  characteristics  of  the  Southern 
coast  lands  strikingly  developed  :  the  most  dangerous  shoals  and 
sand-bars,  shallow  sounds  reaching  far  up  into  the  land,  low  islands 
sometimes  forming  large  plantations,  and  either  immense  cypress 
swamps,  often  following  the  river-courses  far  inland,  or  open  marshes 
of  soft  bog,  overgrown  with  rank  herbage.  Like  all  lands  subject 
to  tide-floods,  this  swamp  region  is  very  productive,  and  large  tracts 
which  have  been  drained  for  cultivation  are  covered,  year  after  year, 
with  luxuriant  crops  of  cotton  or  rice.  The  swamp  cedars  and  pines 
attain  a  vigorous  growth,  and  the  great  live-oaks  of  some  localities 
furnish  the  finest  timber  for  shipbuilding  in  the  Union. 

The  belt  of  lowlands  broadens  here  to  such  an  extent  that  it  may 
be  subdivided  into  the  productive  swamp  region  of  the  coast,  and  a 
sterile,  sandy  belt,  covered  for  the  most  part  with  pines  or  scrub-oaks, 
valueless  for  cultivation,  and  known  throughout  these  and  the  more 
Southern  States  as  "  pine  barrens."  The  absence  of  grass,  and  the 
glare  of  the  loose,  white  sand,  give  a  peculiar  aspect  to  this  region. 
Wild-flowers,  however,  grow  abundantly  in  the  spring  ;  and,  as  New 
England  children  seek  flowers  in  their  sedgy  marshes,  the  young 
people  here  know  the  treasures  of  the  pine  barrens,  where  the  bay- 
flower  blooms  and  the  golden  blossoms  of  the  Carolina  jessamine 
hang  from  bough  to  bough.  Westward  rise  the  more  healthy  up- 
lands, with  forests  of  oak,  maple,  cherry,  and  poplar,  and  with  fresh 
running  streams,  in  strong  contrast  to  the  muddy,  sluggish  river- 
courses  below.  Throughout  all  this  hill  region  grain,  tobacco,  and 
sweet  potatoes  are  cultivated,  and  the  wild  grapevine  grows  luxuri- 
antly all  over  the  country. 

North  Carolina.  —  The  name  of  pine  barrens  has  become  espe- 
cially associated  with  North  Carolina,  where  the  distinctive  occupation 
is  the  preparation  of  pitch,  tar,  and  turpentine  from  the  extensive 
pine  woods.  All  through  the  low  country  the  trees  bear  white  scars 
from  the  cuttings  made  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap  begins  to  flow 

Questions. — Where  is  Harper's  Ferry?  What  and  where  is  We.st  Virginia? 
What  is  .said  of  it  ?  Of  Wheeling  ?  What  and  where  is  the  capital  ?  What  is  the 
character  of  the  surface  of  Carolina  ?  Of  the  soil  ?  Describe  the  pine  baixens.  The 
hill-conntry.  What  is  the  special  occapation  in  North  Carolina  ?  What  is  turpen- 
tine? 


freely.  This  white,  thick  sap,  or  turpentine,  drips  into  wooden  troughs 
and  is  collected  for  exportation.  Tar  is  made  by  burning  billets  of 
pine  wood  in  heaps,  covered  over  with  earth  so  that  they  cannot 
blaze.  A  little  curl  of  smoke  escapes  from  the  top  of  the  mound, 
and  the  tar,  or  thick,  blackened  sap,  runs  out  in  a  trench  at  the  bottom. 
Pitch  is  obtained  by  boiling  down  the  tar.  Rosin  is  also  obtained 
from  the  turpentine. 

The  western  part  of  the  State  is  crossed  by  the  Blue  Ridge  and 
Alleghany  Mountains  from  Virginia,  and  the  Black  Mountains,  which 
contain  some  of  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Appalachian  range.  The 
southern  ofishoots  turn  westward  and  are  lost  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Georgia  and  Alabama,  barely  skirting  South  Carolina.  The  coal- 
beds  are  not  much  worked,  but  gold  has  been  obtained  along  the 
Blue  Ridge  in  quantities  that  seemed  considerable  before  the  dis- 
covery of  the  vast  gold  regions  of  California. 

The  Carolina  herring-fisheries  are  important. 

Wilmington,  situated  on  a  monotonous  level  of  white  sand,  is  the 
chief  commercial  city.  Newbern,  on  the  Neuse  River,  about  thirty 
miles  from  Pamlico  Sound,  is  the  largest  city  in  the  State. 

Raleigh,  the  capital,  is  pleasantly  situated  about  six  miles  from  the 
Neuse,  and  conveniently  connected  by  railroads  with  other  parts  of 
the  State. 

South  Carolina.  —  We  are  now  in  the  Southern  plantation  region, 
with  its  immense  cotton-fields,  zigzag  fences,  and  large  colored  popu- 
lation. Cotton  and  rice  are  the  staple  productions,  and  palmettoes 
and  magnolia  groves  are  suggestive  of  tropical  vegetation. 


Rice  Swamp. 

The  drained  swamp-lands  of  South  Carolina  are  especially  suitable 
for  the  cultivation  of  rice,  which  is  more  extensively  produced  here 
than  in  any  other  State.  Cotton  of  a  superior  quality,  known  as 
the  "sea-island  cotton,"  grows  on  the  Island  plantations  along  the 
coast.  These  low  islands,  scarcely  rising  above  the  water,  were  for- 
merly little  more  than  swamps  covered  with  forests  and  filled  with 
alligators ;  but  the  larger  islands  are  now  cultivated  and  support  a 

QuestionB.  —  How  is  tar  made  ?  Pitch  ?  What  mountains  in  the  west  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Black  Mountains  ?  Of  gol<l  ?  Of  fisheries  ?  What  is  said  of  Wilming- 
ton ?  Newhem  ?  Raleigh  f  What  is  said  of  the  appearance  and  productions  of  South 
Carolina  ?    Of  the  cultivation  of  rice  ?    What  is  sea-island  cotton  ? 


Mil  I,o^-ii^u(l^'^^T■K*  ihnix  (iv'ciimrli      7;!» 


77 


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1 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


65 


MAjP  STUDIES. 


NE"W    YORK. 


t 


Boundaries.  —  E.\st.  —  By  Lake  Champlain  and  a  nearly  straight  boundary 
line  on  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut.  North.  —  Half  by  Canada 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  half  by  a  coast  line  on  Lake  Ontario.  West.  — 
Bv  Niagara  River  separating  it  from  Canada,  a  coast  line  on  Lake  Erie,  and  a 
short  boundary  line  on  Pennsylvania.  South.  —  A  Straight  line  on  Pennsylvania, 
continued  southeastward  by  Delaware  River  and  a  boundary  line  on  New  Jersey. 

Mountains.  —  The  Adirondacs  in  the  northeast,  tlie  Catskills  and  the  High- 
lands in  the  east  and  southeast. 

Rivers.  —  The  Hudson  rises  in  the  Adirondacs,  flows  south  through  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  Sta'e  into  Long  Island  Sound.  The  Mohawk  flows  eastward  into 
the  Hudson.  The  Susquehanna  rises  in  this  State  and  flows  southward  into 
Pennsylvania.  The  Genesee  flows  from  south  to  north  through  the  State,  and 
empties  into  Lake  Ontario.     Niagara  River  and  Falls  are  on  the  west  boundary. 

Cities.  —  On  the  Hudson.  —  New  York,  West  Point,  Poughkeepsie,  Albany, 
Troy.  On  Lake  Champlain.  —  Plattsburg  and  Rouse's  Point.  Westward  from 
the  Hudson.  —  Saratoga,  Schenectady,  Utica,  Syracuse.  On  the  St.  Lawrence. 
—  Ogdensburg.  On  Lake  Ontario.  —  Sackett's  Harbor,  Oswego.  On  the  Gen- 
esee River.  — Rochester.     On  Lake  Erie.  —  Buffalo,  Dunkirk. 

Resources.  —  Commerce,  manufactures,  farming,  mining. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Boundaries.  —  North  ?     West?     South?     Easfby?     Separating  it  from  ? 

Mountains.  —  Several  ridges  of  the  AUeghanies. 

Rivers-  —  The  Alleghany  from  New  York,  and  the  Alonongahela  from  Penn- 
sylvania, unite  to  form  the  Ohio.  The  Delaware  forms  the  east  boundary,  flow- 
ing into  D e  Bay.     The    Susquehanna  rises  ?     Flows  into  ?     The  Juniata 

flows  among  the  mountains  into  ? 

Cities.  —  Pliiladelpliia  on?     Harrisburg  on  ?    Reading  on?     Pittsburg  on? 

Resources.  —  Coul,  iron,  petroleum,  manufaptures. 
\  ,  /-    '■■ 

NE-W   JERS'^Y. 

Boundaries.  —  Northeast  by  ?  West  by?  Separating  it  from  ?  Southwest 
roast  on  ?     East  coast  on  ? 

Mountains.  —  Ridges  in  the  north. 

Rivers.  —  The  D e  flowing  into?    The? c  flowing  into?    The  R n 

(lowing  into? 

Cities.  —  Trenton  on  ?     Newark  on  ?     Patcrson    on  ?     Jersey  City  on  ? 

Resources.  —  Iron,  porcelain-clay,  fruits,  manufactures. 

DELAWARE. 

Boundaries.  —  North  ?     West  ?     South  ?     East,  a  coast  line  on  ? 
Mountains  and  rivers.  —  No  mountains,  and  few  streams. 
Cities.  —  Dover,  the  capital,  on  ?     Wilmington  on  ? 
Resources.  —  Wheat  and  fruits. 

MARYLAND. 

Boundaries. —  North?  "West-^  South  and  southwest  by?  Separating  it 
from  ?     East,  a  boundary  line  on  ?     And  short  coast  line  on  ? 

Mountains.  —  AUeghanies  and  Blue  Ridge  in  the  west. 

Rivers.  —  The  Potomac  rises  in  the  AUeghanies,  forms  the  southwest  boun- 
dary, and  flows  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  lower  course  of  the  Susquehanna  is 
tlirough  the  northeast  part  into  ? 

Cities.  -^  Baltimore  on  Patapsco  River,  near  the  head  of  C e  Bay.  An- 
napolis, the  capital,  on  ?     Cumberland  on? 

Resources.  —  Tobacco,  iron. 

DISTRICT   OP   COLUMBIA. 

Where,  and  what  cities  does  it  contain  ? 

VIRGINIA   AND   WEST   VIRGINIA. 

Boundaries.  —  South.  —  A  long  boundary  line  on  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee.  NoitTH  AND  Northeast.  —  A  short  boundary  line  on  Pennsylvania,  and 


separated  by  the  Potomac  from  Maryland.  (The  point  of  intersection  of  the 
straight  boundary  lines  on  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  is  directly  north  of  the 
middle  point  of  the  south  boundary  line.)  Northwest.  —  By  the  Ohio  River, 
separating  it  from  Ohio.  (West  Virginia  extends  north  to  the  intersection  of  the 
Ohio  River  and  the  west  boundary  of  Pennsylvania.)  West.  — By  Kentucky, 
separated  from  it  by  ?  East.  ^ — -A  coast  line  on  the  Atlantic  and  Chesapeake 
Bay. 

Mountains.  —  The  Blue  Ridge  and  AUeghanies  run,  in  parallel  ridges,  through 
the  State,  forming  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

Rivers.  —  The  Potomac,  Ohio,  and  Big  Sandy  are  boundary  lines.  The  Shen- 
andoah flows  northeast  between  two  mountain  chains  into  the  Potomac  at  Har- 
per's Ferry.  The  James,  York,  and  Rappahannock  flow  southeast  into  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  Kanawha  flows  through  West  Virginia  into  the  Ohio. 

Cities.  —  Richmond,  the  capital  of  Virginia,  is  on  ?  Norfolk,  the  chief  port,  is 
on?  Yorktown,  of  Revolutionary  fame,  is  on  ?  Frederick'sburg  is  on  ?  Wheel- 
ing is  on  ?     Charleston,  the  capital  of  West  Virginia,  is  on  ?  ^^  .0 

Resources.  —  Tobacco,  wheat,  mineral  waters.  * 


•^ 


considerable  population.  The  forests  have  mostly  disappeared, 
though  some  pines  and  palmettoec  still  remain  on  Port  Royal  and 
other  large  islands. 

Charleston,  the  chief  Atlantic  port  of  the  Southern  States,  is  built 
on  a  point  of  land  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper 
Kivers.  Many  of  the  streets  are  bordered  with  shade-trees,  and  the 
well-built  houses  are  ornamented  with  balconies  or  verandas,  and 
surrounded  by  gardens.  Many  of  the  residents  are  owners  of  cotton 
or  rice  plantations  in  the  neighborhood,  where  they  spend  a  part  of 
the  year.  Charleston  harbor  has  many  fortifications,  and  Fort  Sum- 
ter, now  partially  in  ruins,  is  memorable  as  the  first  point  of  attack 
in  the  war  of  Secession. 

Columbia,  in  the  interior,  is  the  capital  of  the  State.  Beaufort  is 
on  Port  Royal  Island.  Camden  is  a  place  of  historic  interest,  where 
two  battles  were  fought  during  the  Revolutionary  War. 

GEORGIA. 

In  Georgia  we  have  a  continuation  of  the  Carolina  surface  :  the 
same  marshy  coast,  with  magnolias  and  palmettoes  rising  from  the 
low,  tropical  islands,  and  cypresses  and  live-oaks  hung  with  moss  ; 
the  sterile  pine  barrens ;  and  the  hill-country  of  the  interior,  where 
the  Cherokee  rose,  with  its  evergreen  foliage  and  white  flowers, 
abounds.  But  there  is  a  shorter  line  of  sea-coast ;  less  marsh- 
land, except  the  great  Okefinokee  Swamp,  extending  partly  into 
Florida  ;   and  a  greater  extent  of  healthy  upland  country. 

The  northern  part  of  the  State,  where  some  of  the  ranges  of  the 
Appalachian  system  have  their  termination,  is  wild  and  picturesque. 
Here,  and  in  the  neighboring  region  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains, 
the  deep  chasms,  the  precipitous  ledges  of  rock,  the  torrents  and 
ravines,  form  a  wilder  combination  than  is  found  among  the  Northern 
mountain  ridges.  The  productions  are  the  same  as  in  Carolina,  — 
cotton  and  rice  in  the  lowlands,  and  grain  in  the  upper  valleys.  The 
Savannah^  one  of  the  largest  Southern  rivers,  separates  Georgia  from 
South  Carolina ;  and  near  its  mouth  stands  the  small,  but  beautiful 
city  of  Savannah,  with  shaded  streets,  open  squares,  and  detached 
houses  surrounded  with  a  profusion  of  vines,  flowers,  and  shrubbery. 
It  is  connected  by  railroads  with  Charleston  on  one  side,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  other,  and  is  increasing  in  trade  and  popu- 
lation. 


Questions.  —  Wliat  is  said  of  the  islands  along  the  coast  ?  What  is  the  name 
of  the  largest  ?  Describe  Charleston.  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  other  towns  are 
mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  Georgia  ?  Of  the  mountain  region  ?  Of  the  produc- 
tions ?    Of  the  Savannah  River  ?    Describe  the  city  of  Savannah. 


66 


OUR  WORLD. 


Atlanta,  a  thriving  city  at  a  railroad  junction,  toward  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  State,  is  now  the  capital.  Augusta  is  an  important 
place  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Savannah.  Macon,  on  the 
Ocmulgee,  and  Columbus,  on  the  Chattahoochee  Eiver,  are  also  im- 
portant towns. 

FLORIDA. 

The  warm,  equable  climate  of  Florida,  with  its  orange  groves,  pal- 
raettoes,  and  sugar-cane,  indicates  the  border  of  the  torrid  zone,  and 
here  scarcely  a  trace  is  left  of  the  life  and  scenery  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Atlantic  slope.  Large  tracts  are  dry  and  sandy,  as  in 
the  pine  barrens,  but  much  of  the  country  is  swamp-land.  The  warm 
climate,  heavy  dews,  and  abundant  moisture  compensate  for  the 
poverty  of  the  soil,  and  the  planter  often  obtains  good  crops  of  cot- 
ton and  rice,  whicli,  with  the  figs  and  oranges,  large  ferns,  thickets 
of  prickly  plants,  brilliant  blossoms,  and  the  lofty  swamp  forests, 
form  a  decidedly  tropical  vegetation.  But  in  spite  of  its  beauty  and 
richness,  an  eye  accustomed  to  grass  lawns  and  green  pastures  is 
often  wearied  by  the  bare  sand. 

Everglades.  —  Beside  the  ordinary  coast  marshes,  the  whole 
southern  portion  of  the  State  is  occupied  by  immense  swamps,  over- 
grown with  cypress  and  water-oaks,  interspersed  with  stagnant  pools 
of  water,  and  known  as  the  "  Everglades."  These  vast  swamp-lands, 
inhabited  by  alligators  and  water-fowl,  are  often  quite  impassable  after 
the  rains,  and  can  only  be  explored  in  a  boat  or  canoe  which  can  be 
pushed  through  the  canes  beneath  the  gloomy  draperies  of  Spanish 
moss  that  hang  from  the  trees. 

The  peninsula  of  Florida  is  a  coral  formation  attached  to  the  main- 
land, and  covered  in  the  course  of  ages  with  soil  and  vegetation. 
The  long  coast  line  on  gulf  and  ocean  is  indented  with  numerous 
lagoons,  skirted  by  reefs  and  islands,  and  is  almost  inaccessible.  The 
southern  point  is  surrounded  by  a  chain  of  islands  known  as  the 
"  Florida  Keys,"  ending  in  a  cluster  of  coral  rocks,  called  the  Tor- 
tugas.  South  of  the  Keys  there  is  a  navigable  channel,  and  beyond 
is  the  long  coral  reef  known  to  sailors  as  the  "  Florida  Reef."  Key 
West,  five  or  six  miles  long  and  two  wide,  is  the  principal  island,  and 
important  as  a  harbor  and  naval  station,  but  is  otherwise  only  a  dreary 
mass  of  coral  rock. 

St.  Augustine,  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States,  stands  quaint 
and  venerable  within  sound  of  the  Atlantic  surf,  a  relic  of  the  past, 
disturbed  by  no  noisy  trade.  The  narrow  streets,  the  overhanging 
balconies,  the  convent,  and  the  old  fort,  with  drawbridge  and  moat, 
built  over  two  hundred  years  ago,  might  well  belong  to  some  old 
European  city.     Very  little  business  of  any  kind  is  carried  on,  and 


the  place  is  now  known  chiefly  as  a  resort  for  invalids  who  go  to 
spend  the  winters  in  that  delightful  climate. 

Sandy  roads  lead  through  the  remains  of  the  old  city  gates  into  the 
surrounding  country,  bordered  at  first  by  live  and  water  oaks  twined 
with  yellow  jessamine,  and  then  passing  through  a  level  expanse  of 
low  palmettoes.  Some  miles  beyond,  picturesque  groves  of  magnolia 
and  oak  begin  to  appear,  with  the  usual  draperies  of  Spanish  moss, 
and  an  undergrowth  of  shrubs,  creepers,  and  ferns. 

The  St.  John's  River,  flowing  northward  from  a  swamp  three  hun- 
dred miles  south  of  St.  Augustine,  is  a  sluggish  but  clear  stream,  more 
like  a  lagoon  than  a  river,  with  a  tropical  vegetation  along  its  banks. 

Jacksonville,  on  the  St.  John's  River,  with  a  larger  population 
than  St.  Augustine,  owes  its  growth  to  the  large  number  of  visitors 
from  Northern  cities,  and  to  its  export  of  pine  lumber.  There  are 
many  steam  saw-mills  in  its  vicinity. 

Tallahassee,  the  capital,  is  on  a  railroad  which  crosses  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  State. 

Pensacola  and  Apalachicola  are  the  chief  ports  on  the  Gulf,  and 
these,  with  some  other  small  stations,  carry  on  the  coasting  trade. 
Much  of  the  cotton  is  exported  through  Mobile. 

SUMMARY. 

The  Atlantic  Slope  extends  from  Maine  to  Florida,  ranging  from 
fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  in  breadth.  A  low  ledge  divides  the 
coast  belt  from  the  western  hill-country  which  rises  gradually  to  the 
Appalachian  Mountains. 

The  hill-country  is  varied  throughout  with  woods,  valleys,  water- 
falls, and  cultivated  fields  of  grain. 

COMPARATIVE  FEATURES. 


NOETH  SECTION. 

Commercial,  manufacturing,  and  popu- 
lous. 

Cities  numerous  and  large. 

Farms  small,  chiefly  grain  and  grazing 
lands. 

Coast  often  rocky  ;  harbors  numerous. 

Small,  sedgy  marshes  and  clear  ponds. 

•Grass  lawns  and  meadows. 
Lumber  forests  inland . 
Trees,  —  elms,  alders,  willows,  oaks,  ma- 
ples, birches,  spruces,  firs,  hemlocks,  etc. 

Islands  rocky  and  hilly. 
Rivers  clear  and  rapid. 


SOUTH  SECTION. 

Agricultural,  and  less  tlikkly  settled. 

Cities  fewer  and  comparatively  small. 

Plantations  large,  producing  tobacco, 
cotton,  and  rice. 

Coast  low,  obstructed  by  sand  bars  ;  har- 
bors few. 

Immense  swamps  overgrown  with  cy- 
press-trees and  live  and  water  oaks. 

Sandy  pine-barrens. 

Lumber  forests  in  the  coast  .swamps. 

Trees,  —  pines,  live-oaks,  and  cypresses 
draped  with  gray  moss,  also  sweet-gum 
trees,  magnolias,  palmettoes,  etc. 

Islands  low,  flat,  and  sandy. 

Rivers  muddy  and  sluggish. 


THE   BASIN   OF   THE    MISSISSIPPI. 


Tms  vast  basin,  lying  between  the  mountain  systems  of  the  East 
and  West,  includes  the  two  great  agricultural  regions  of  our  coun- 
try,—  the  wheat  or  grain  region  of  the  North,  and  the  cotton  region 
of  the  South. 

The  middle  portion  of  this  great  plain  consists  of  a  varied  surface, 
more  or  less  wooded  and  hilly,  which  flattens  northward  into  the  broad 
grass  prairies,  and  southward  into  the  low  coast  lands  of  the  gulf. 

Questions.  —  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  other  towns  are  mentioned  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  climate  and  appearance  of  Florida  ?  Of  the  productions  ?  What  are  the 
Everglades  ?    What  is  said  of  the  formation  of  Florida  ?    Of  the  coast  ?    What  are 


The  whole  basin  is  drained  by  the  innumerable  streams  which  rise 
along  the  slopes  of  the  Appalachian  and  Rocky  Mountains,  and,  unit- 
ing one  with  another,  swell  the  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Ohio,  and  finally 
join  the  Mississippi.  With  this  great  volume  of  water  the  Missis- 
sippi carries  down  an  immense  quantity  of  mud  and  sand,  which  is 
continually  deposited  at  its  mouth  ;  and  a  large  delta  is  thus  formed, 

the  Keys?  The  Tortugas  ?  Where  is  the  Florida  Reef  ?  Which  is  the  largest  island  ? 
Describe  St.  Augustine.  The  surrounding  country.  St.  John's  River.  What  is  said 
of  other  towns  ?  Wliat  is  included  in  the  Mississi])pi  Basin  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
middle  portion  ?    Of  the  rivers  and  drainage  ?    How  is  the  delta  formed  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


67 


extending  far  into  the  gulf,  and  covering  a  space  of  from  ninety  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  wide. 

The  Mississippi,  rises  in  the  beautiful  lake  and  forest  region  of 
Minnesota,  where  its  clear  stream,  studded  with  islands,  falls  in 
cascades  over  rocky  ledges,  and  is  bordered  by  high  bluffs  affording 
a  succession  of  picturesque  views  ;  but  the  precipitous  banks  entirely 
disappear  before  the  river  is  joined  by  the  Ohio.  The  stream  becomes 
thick  and  muddy,  as  it  continues  its  course  through  the  alluvial  plain 
of  the  south,  flowing  between  low,  wooded  banks,  that  rise  only  a  few 
feet  above  the  water,  and  finally  through  the  cane-brakes  and  cypress- 
swamps  of  Mississippi  and  Louisiana.  When  the  river  is  high  it 
overflows  all  this  low  country,  and  great  seas  spread  out  on  both 
sides  of  the  stream.  Along  the  lower  course  of  the  river,  embank- 
ments are  raised  for  protection,  yet  the  spring  freshets  often  cause 
great  destruction,  sweeping  away  fences  and  houses,  and  driving 
boats  out  of  the  main  channel  into  the  stamps.  By  successive  over- 
flows and  subsidences,  and  the  wearing  of  the  soil,  new  outlets  are 
formed,  which  are  often  navigable,  and  are  known  as  "bayous."  As 
the  banks  of  the  river  are  undermined,  trees  are  swept  down  by  the 
floods  and  left  in  the  main   channel,  with  their  roots  fixed  in  the 


Vlc-.v  on  fii.    M 


mud,  their  tops  partially  or  wholly  under  water.  These  "  snags," 
or  "sawyers"  as  they  are  called  when  they  are  swayed  by  the 
current,  render  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  dangerous,  espc 
cially  at  night.  Obstructions  are  also  caused  by  accumulations 
of  drift,  and  large  sums  are  expended  in  removing  both  drift  and 
snags. 

The  Mississippi  is  navigable  to  St.  Anthony's  Falls  in  Minne- 
sota; and,  through  the  Ohio,  communication  is  opened  from  New 
Orleans  to  Pittsburg,  a  distance  of  over  two  thousand  miles.  West- 
ward the  Missouri  is  navigable  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 
Thus  the  whole  plain  is  open  to  trade  and  an  easy  exchange  of 
produce. 

This  central  plain  may  also  be  considered  in  two  sections,  differing 
almost  as  much  as  those  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  though  the  leading  oc- 
cupation is  the  same  in  both. 

Questions.  —  Describe  the  upper  course  of  the  Missis.sippi.  The  course  helow 
the  Ohio.  What  is  said  of  its  overflows  ?  What  are  bayous  ?  What  are  snags  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  extent  of  navigation  ?  How  may  this  central  plain  be 
divided  ? 


THE  SOUTHERN   SECTION. 

This  section,  including  the  Gulf  States,  together  with  Arkansas 
and  Tennessee,  is  mainly  a  region  of  swamps,  frequent  inundations, 
rich  alluvial  plains,  immense  plantations,  and  small  towns  or  cities 
sparsely  scattered  over  the  country.  Of  late  years  railroads  have 
been  greatly  multiplied,  and  in  the  more  healthy  localities,  and  in 
the  trading-centres,  thriving  towns  are  growing  up.  The  winters 
are  mild,  never  bringing  more  than  a  thin  coating  of  ice,  and  the 
summers  are  long  and  hot,  and  often  accompanied  by  enervating 
fevers.  The  fertile  soil  readily  yields  abundant  crops,  and  cotton  is 
shipped  from  the  Southern  ports  to  supply  thousands  of  looms  and 
spindles  in  America  and  Europe.  Since  the  late  war  of  Secession 
the  white  population  has  increased  in  these  States,  and  manufac- 
tures, which  had  before  been  very  limited,  are  becoming  more  im- 
portant ;  but  these  broad,  rich  plains  are  so  admirably  fitte^for  cul- 
tivation that  agriculture  will  always  be  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
people.  Cotton  is  the  great  staple  of  the  country,  but  tobacco, 
sweet  potatoes,  some  grain,  and,  in  the  extreme  South,  rice  and 
sugar-cane  are  produced,  and  to  some  extent  oranges  and  figs.  In 
this  last  region  alligators  and  paroquets  are  still  further  indications 
of  a  tropical  climate.  There  are  abundant  facilities  for  inland  trade, 
with  rivers  and  railroads  crossing  the  level  country  in  various 
directions. 

ALABAMA,  MISSISSIPPI,  AND   LOUISIANA. 

These  States,  like  those  of  the  South  Atlantic  slope,  have  a  low 
marshy  coast,  obstructed  by  sand-bars  and  islands.  Along  the  shore 
stretches  a  broad  belt  of  cypress-swamps  and  cane-brakes  traversed 
by  sluggish  streams,  and  gradually  changing  into  a  tract  of  sandy 
barrens  scantily  covered  with  straggling  pines.  Still  farther  north 
spread  the  broad,  rich  plains  which  constitute  the  wealth  of  the 
Southern  States,  varied  only  by  occasional  undulations,  and  in  some 
parts  without  trees,  except  where  strips  of  forest  border  the  rivers. 


Cotton-Picking. 


Questions.  —  What  does  the  southern  section  include  ?  What  is  the  character  of 
the  country  ?  What  is  said  of  the  climate  and  condition  of  this  section  ?  What  arc 
the  productions  ?  The  facilities  for  trade !  What  is  said  of  the  Gulf  Stat«s  ?  De- 
scribe the  coast  and  country. 


68 


OUR  WORLD. 


The  northern  counties  are  generally  well  wooded  with  oak,  hickory, 
walnut,  and  sycamore.  Sometimes  the  plains  arc  covered  with  a 
natural  growth  of  coarse,  tufted  grass,  but  oftener  the  eye  rests  on 
an  interminable  expanse  of  cotton-fields,  fresh  and  green  in  early 
spring,  but  later  covered  with  pale  yellow  flowers,  and  in  autumn 
lirowii  and  dry,  and  tliickly  spotted  with  the  large  white  cotton-balls 
bursting  from  the  ripe  pods.  Then  the  fields  are  alive  with  cotton- 
pickers,  chietly  cohirod  men  and  women,  bending  over  the  long  rows 
of  plants,  bearing  tall  baskets  on  their  heads,  or  driving  the  lumber- 
ing i)X-cart  down  the  lane. 

Alabama.  —  The  northern  part  of  this  State  is  crossed  by  the  last 
ridges  of  the  Appalachian  range,  and  here  the  country  is  wild  and 
picturesque,  containing  forests,  hills,  coal-beds,  sulphur  springs,  and 
Indian  mounds  associated  with  legends  of  the  old  tribes.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  State  is  destitute  of  good  water,  which  is  only  ob- 
tained ^  artesian  wells,  in  some  of  which  the  water  rises  from  a 
depth  of  a  thousand  feet. 

Montgomery,  the  capital,  on  one  of  the  principal  railroads,  has 
grown  rapidly  within  the  last  few  years,  and  is  now  the  largest  city 
in  the  State. 

Mobile,  next  in  importance  to  New  Orleans  as  a  cotton-port,  is 
situated  on  a  flat,  sandy  plain  near  the  gulf,  extending  about  a  mile 
along  the  river,  and  surrounded  by  handsome  suburban  residences, 
villas,  and  cottages.  The  occupation  of  the  people  generally  has 
some  connection  with  the  growing,  pressing,  storing,  buying,  sell- 
ing, or  shipping  of  cotton  ;  but  there  are  some  foundries  and  ship- 
yards. 

Huntsville  is  a  pretty  town  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  Sel- 
ma,  near  the  middle  of  the  State,  is  an  important  railroad  centre. 

Mississippi.  —  This  State  consists  almost  entirely  of  prairie 
lands,  and  produces  more  cotton  than  any  other  State  of  the  Union. 
'Along  the  Mississippi  River  there  is  a  tract  of  low  hills  or  mounds, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Vicksburg  and  Natchez  are  the  only  "blufis," 
or  steep  banks,  found  in  its  lower  course.  On  the  gulf  shore  there 
are  no  harbors,  and  few  ports  on  the  long  river-course. 

Natchez,  the  principal  river-port  and  trading-centre,  is  situated 
on  the  "  Blufls,"  and  Vicksburg,  memorable  for  a  siege  during  the 
late  war,  is  farther  up  the  river.  Jackson,  the  capital,  is  a  small 
city  on  the  Pearl  River. 

Louisiana.  —  Here  the  cane-brakes  and  swamps  reach  their  great- 
est extent,  and  the  whole  southern  part  of  the  State  is  one  vast 
region  of  lakes  and  marshes,  crossed  only  in  boats.  The  oozy  land 
rarely  forms  a  firm  surface,  and  its  forests  and  canes  rise,  as  it  were, 
from  the  midst  of  the  waters. 

Numerous  lakes,  or  pools,  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  swamp 
waters,  serve  as  haunts  for  alligators  and  other  reptiles,  and  water- 
fowl ;  and  the  region  is  traversed  by  streams  and  "  bayous."  Far 
up  the  Mississippi  the  swamp  forests  of  cypress  and  water-oaks, 
darkened  with  long  festoons  of  gray  moss,  border  the  river  and  its 
branches,  giving  to  the  scenery  the  beauty  of  luxuriant  growth, 
dreamy  solitudes,  and  weird  shadows.  All  this  region  is  subject  to 
inundations,  and  the  levees  or  embankments  raised  to  pi-otect  the 
city  of  New  Orleans  from  the  overflow  of  the  river  extend  north- 
ward to  Baton  Rouge.  Between  the  marshes  of  the  Sabine  and 
Mississippi  Rivers  lie  extensive  prairies,  and  over  the  grass  meadows 
of  Opelousas  roam  the  first  of  those  large  herds  of  cattle  that  will 


QueationB.  —  Describe  the  cotton  plantations.  What  i.s  said  of  the  surface  of 
Alabama?  Of  Montgomery  ?  Of  Mobile  ?  Of  other  towns  ?  What  is  said  of  Missis- 
sippi ?  Of  the  river  blufls  ?  What  are  the  principal  towns  ?  What  is  said  of  Lou- 
isiana ?    Of  the  lake  and  marsk  region  1    Where  are  the  prairies  ? 


be  found  so  conspicuous  in  Texan 
life.  North  of  the  Red  River  the 
country  is  more  wooded. 

Cotton  is  largely  cultivated,  but 
sugar-cane  is  the  special  produc- 
tion of  Louisiana,  and  the  great 
sugar-houses  take  the  place  of  the 
cotton-presses  of  the  Mississippi 
plantations. 

On  a  sudden  bend  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, about  a  hundred  miles 
from  its  mouth,  stands  New  Or- 
leans, the  one  great  city  of  the 
South,  and  the  greatest  cotton- 
port  of  the  world.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  almost  as  flat  as 
the  delta  itself,  and  a  belt  of 
.swamp-land,  covered  by  cypress 
and  dense  underbrush,  extends 
north  of  the  city  toward  a  slight 
swell  along  the  shores  of  Lake 
Pontchartrain,  which  has  been  ap- 
propriated for  the  principal  ceme- 
teries. Louisiana  was  first  settled 
by  the  French,  and  the  subtropi- 
cal climate,  and  the  French  char- 
acter which  New  Orleans  still  re- 
tains, make  it  unlike  any  other 
city  of  the  Union.  Some  quar- 
ters are  occupied  entirely  by  the 
French,  and  there  are  French  the- 
atres, hotels,  and  newspapers. 
Many  houses  are  still  standing 
that  were  built  in  the  old  French 
or  Spanish  style,  stuccoed  on  the 
outside  in  white  or  yellow,  and 
ABaTon.  with  a  carnagc-way  leading  from 

the  street  to  an  inner  court-yard.  The  old  streets  are  narrow,  like 
those  of  European  cities,  and  some  of  the  wealthy,  populous  fau- 
bourgs are  quite  foreign  in  appearance.  Canal  Carondelet  pene- 
trates to  the  heart  of  the  city,  connecting  with  Bayou  St.  John, 
and  terminating  in  a  basin  for  the  accommodation  of  vessels. 
Another  canal,  running  westward,  takes  most  of  the  coast  trade, 
and  is  filled  with  lumber-boats  ;  but  the  Mississippi  is  the  great 
thoroughfare  of  commerce.  Along  the  river  in  front  of  the  city 
extends  the  "levee,"  or  embankment,  in  a  succession  of  wharves 
and  piers  several  miles  long,  lined  with  vessels  from  all  parts  of  the 
world ;  and  during  the  busy  season  it  is  the  scene  of  a  singular  ac- 
tivity. Commodities  of  all  countries  are  brought  to  the  New  Orleans  . 
market,  and  the  only  drawback  to  trade  is  the  unhealthy  climate, 
with  its  fatal  yellow-fever,  that  banishes  half  the  population  from  the 
city  during  the  summer  months,  destroys  many  who  remain,  and 
causes  an  almost  entire  cessation  of  business  in  the  deserted  streets. 
New  Orleans  exports  an  immense  quantity  of  cotton  to  Europe,  and 
sends  sugar  and  molasses  to  the  inland  States  by  means  of  steam- 
boat navigation.     It  is  now  the  capital  of  the  State. 

Baton  Rouge,  the  former  capital,  and  one  of  the  old  French  settle- 
ments on  the  Mississippi,  is  in  the  midst  of  the  cotton  and  sugar  dis- 


Questions.  —  Where  are  the  Ojielousas  meadows  ?    What  are  the  productions  ? 
Describe  New  Orleans.     What  is  said  of  its  trade  1    What  is  said  of  Baton  Rouge  ! 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


69 


trict ;  but  the  difficult  navigation  of  the  river  here  has  prevented  its 
growth. 

ARKANSAS. 

A  mild  climate,  large  plantations,  and  fine  crops  of  cotton  entitle 
Arkansas  to  a  place  among  the  cotton  States  ;  and,  though  it  is  shut 
off  from  the  coast  marshes,  there  are  along  the  Mississippi  River 
swamp-forests,  cane-brakes,  and  shallow  lakes,  as  in  Louisiana.  The 
country  generally,  however,  is  far  more  varied  and  striking  than  in 
the  level  prairie  region  farther  south.  Hills  and  forests  alternate, 
and  in  the  western  part  of  the  State  is  the  wild  mountain-region  of 
the  Ozark  Mountains.  All  this  western  country  abounds  with  coal, 
iron,  lead,  zinc,  and  gypsum,  though  mines  are  as  yet  little  worked. 
The  forests  afford  lumber,  the  fertile  soil  produces  corn,  cotton,  etc., 
and  pasture  lands  supply  wool  and  live  stock. 

Few  States  are  crossed  by  so  many  large,  navigable  rivers.  The 
Arkansas  has  a  course  of  fourteen  hundred  miles  within  the  limits  of 
the  State  ;  the  White  and  Washita  also  flow  through  the  State.  The 
Red  River  crosses  the  southwest  corner,  and  the  Mississippi  forms  a 
boundary  of  between  three  hundred  and  four  hundred  miles. 

The  towns  are  small  and  comparatively  few.  Little  Rock,  the 
capital,  is  situated  on  Arkansas  River. 

The  trade  of  Arkansas  consists  chiefly  in  the  transportation  of  cot- 
ton, hides,  and  lumber  down  the  river. 

MISSOURI. 

The  last  of  the  swamps  of  the  Mississippi  end  with  the  "Great 
Swamp  "  along  the  St.  Francis  Valley,  which  extends  from  Arkan- 
sas into  Missouri,  more  than  a  hundred  miles,  covered  with  a  dense 
growth,  full  of  lakes  or  lagoons,  and  subject  to  inundation.-  Beyond 
this  the  banks  of  the  river  rise  higher,  sometimes  in  a  solid  mass  of 
limestone,  three  hundred  feet  high.  North  of  the  Missouri  River 
appear  the  fertile  rolling  prairies  of  the  north  section,  destitute  of 
trees,  but  separated  by  broad  belts  of  forest  along  the  streams.  The 
western  and  least  populous  portioji  of  the  State  is  rugged  and 
broken  with  precipitous  cliffs  and  the  high  peaks  of  the  Ozark 
Mountains. 

Hemp  and  flax  are  cultivated  in  place  of  cotton,  and  fine  crops  of 
wheat  are  raised  in  the  north.  There  is  some  coal,  and  Missouri  is 
important  as  an  iron  State.  A  peak,  called  Iron  Mountain,  and 
other  lesser  summits  are  remarkable  masses  of  magnetic  iron  ore. 

Missouri  has  great  advantages  for  future  growth  in  its  central  po- 
sition, navigable  rivers,  fertile  soil,  and  mineral  wealth. 

St.  Louis,  on  the  Mississippi,  twenty  miles  below  its  junction  with 
the  Missouri,  was  founded  by  the  French  as  a  depot  for  furs,  but 
has  become  a  large  and  important  city,  and  one  of  the  gre^  trad- 
ing-centres of  the  West,  connected  with  San  Francisco  by  a  branch 
of  the  Pacific  Railroad.  Several  streets  parallel  with  the  river  are 
devoted  to  business,  and  beyond  these  the  city  presents  a  vast  ex- 
tent of  residences,  churches,  and  public  institutions,  reaching  back 
to  the  open  prairie.  It  has  the  air  of  a  long-established  Eastern  city, 
with  many  evidences  of  wealth  and  refinement.  The  descendants  of 
the  original  settlers  still  retain  the  French  language  and  customs, 
and  give  to  the  place  somewhat  the  character  of  New  Orleans.     From 

Qaestions.  —  What  is  said  of  Arkansas  ?  In  what  does  it  resemble  the  Gulf 
States  ?  In  what  does  it  differ  from  them  ?  What  is  said  of  mountains  ?  Of  livers  ? 
Of  towns  ?  What  is  said  of  the  southeastern  part  of  Missouri  ?  Of  the  northern  part 
of  the  State  ?  Of  the  western  part  ?  What  are  its  productions  and  resources  ?  What 
is  Iron  Mountain  !    What  is  said  of  St.  Louis  ? 


its  central  position  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  St.  Louis  probably  com- 
mands as  great  a  variety  and  profusion  of  supplies  as  any  market  in 
the  world. 

Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph,  one  in  the  east,  the  other  in  the  west, 
aro  flourishing  places. 

TENNESSEE  AND  KENTUCKY. 

We  have  now  reached  the  transition  region  between  the  cotton 
Slates  of  the  South  and  the  wheat  States  of  the  North.  The  last 
of  the  swamp-lands  disappear  with  the  cane-brakes  of  West  Ten- 
nessee and  the  Missouri  marshes  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
The  pine  barrens  are  replaced  by  "  cedar  knobs,"  or  groves  of  tall 
cedars  covering  the  rocky  hills,  and  springing  from  the  thin  soil  of 
the  limestone  ledges.  The  great  masses  of  gray  stone,  the  dark 
foliage,  and  the  scraggy  dead  branches  of  the  older  trees  produce  a 
dreary  effect ;  but  these  cedar  tracts  are  very  valuable  for  timber. 
The  wood  b«iiig  fragrant,  prettily  striped  with  red  and  white,  and 
easily  split  like  the  pine,  is  used  not  only  for  posts,  rails,  beams,  and 
boards,  but  also  for  making  tubs,  pails,  chests,  and  other  household 
articles. 

In  these  States  we  find  neither  the  plains  of  Mississippi  nor  the 
treeless  prairies  of  Illinois  ;  but  a  more  equal  distribution  of  tim- 
ber, and  a  surface  everywhere  varied  with  hills,  valleys,  and  forests. 
The  large,  fertile  farms  consist  of  woodlands,  fields,  and  pastures, 
and  no  single  crop  is  exclusively  cultivated.  Cotton  is  grown  on 
many  of  the  Tennessee  farms,  but  much  less  extensively  than  in  the 
true  cotton  States,  and  its  cultivation  ceases  altogether  in  Kentucky, 
where  flax  is  substituted  in  some  degree.  Wheat,  rye,  and  tobacco 
are  raised,  but  the  distinguishing  production  is  Indian  corn,  which 
is  used  for  bread  far  more  than  wheat  in  many  of  the  Central  and 
Southern  States.  A  large  part  of  the  yearly  crop  is  used  in  feeding 
cattle,  horses,  and  hogs.  Hams,  pork,  and  lard  are  among  the  most 
important  farming  products,  and  throughout  this  part  of  the  country 
a  "smoke-house"  for  curing  bacon  is  a  necessary  appendage  of 
every  farm,  and  scarcely  any  other  meat  is  eaten.  Many  farmers 
are  occupied  in  sheep-raising,  and  both  States  are  noted  for  fine 
mules  and  horses.  A  striking  feature  of  all  this  central  country  is 
the  beauty  and  extent  of  the  forests,  usually  without  underbrush, 
and  consisting  of  lofty  hickory-trees,  black  walnuts,  oaks*  poplars, 
maples,  and  low-spreading  beeches.  Walnuts,  hickory  nuts,  and 
chestnuts  abound,  and  the  ripe  acorns  and  beechnuts  fall  from  the 
trees  in  such  quantities  as  to  furnish  food  for  hogs  during  some 
months  of  each  year. 

The  eastern  portion  of  both  States  is  crossed  by  the  Cumberland 
Mountains,  and  is  one  of  the  wildest  parts  of  the  Appalachian  range, 
with  its  narrow  valleys,  gloomy  caverns,  overhanging  ledges,  and 
deep  chasms,  that  give  the  appearance  of  a  greater  elevation  than 
the  chain  actually  attains  here.  There  are  fine  coal-beds  throughout 
this  region,  and  iron  is  also  abundant.  Mineral  springs  high  among 
the  mountains  are  frequented  during  the  summer  as  much  for  the 
magnificent  scenery  as  for  the  healthful  waters. 

The  limestone  of  these  States  is  full  of  caverns,  among  which  is 
the  famous  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky,  one  of  the  greatest  natural 


Questions.  —  What  other  thriving  towns  ?  What  place  do  Tennessee  and  Ken- 
tucky occupy  in  the  great  central  plain  ?  What  take  the  place  of  the  Southern  pine- 
barrens  ?  Of  what  value  is  the  cedar-wood  ?  Describe  the  surface  of  the  country. 
What  is  said  of  cotton  ?  What  are  the  productions  ?  What  is  said  of  Indian-corn  ? 
Of  hogs  and  stock  ?  Of  forests  ?  Describe  the  eastern  part  of  the  country.  What  is 
the  common  stone  of  this  region  1  What  is  usually  found  in  limestone  regions  !  De- 
scribe the  Mammoth  Cave. 


70 


OUR  WORLD. 


OUR  WORLD. 


THE  NORTHERN  SECTION. 

This  section  is  the  great  prairie  region  of  the  Mississippi  basin, 
including  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Dakota.  It  contains  all  the  condi- 
tions of  a  prosperous  agricultural  country,  —  a  deep,  rich  soil, 
abundant  grass  pastures,  a  level  surface,  admirably  adapted  for 
cultivation  and  easy  transportation,  and  a  healthful  climate.  Timber 
and  building  stone  are  not  wanting,  though  confined  to  certain 
localities,  and  these  States  arc  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  other  metals. 
The  iron  of  Missouri,  the  lead  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  and  the 
copper  of  thcLake  Superior  region  have  become  known  far  and 
wide.  ^B 

Before  th^jBlfores  of  the  Pacific  were  settled,  this  now  central  sec- 
tion was  knowiRs  the  far  west,  thinly  peopled,  and  destitute  of  the 
comforts  and  social  refinements  of  the  older  States.  But  there  is 
nothing  more  striking  in  the  history  of  our  country  than  the  rapid 
growth  of  these  prairie  States.  The  announcement  of  their  wonder- 
ful fertility  brought  rapid  emigr|4ion  both  from  the  Old  World  and 
from  the  Eastern  States.  Their  imKcd  population  has,  from  the  first, 
been  remarkable  for  energy,  intelligence,  and  interest  in  all  pub- 
lic enterprises.  Cities  grew  up  rapidly,  and  are  already  adorned 
with  stately  edifices,  fi"ne  churches,  parks,  and  avenues.  Large  sums 
are  expended  for  schools  and  colleges,  and  the  latest  improvements 
in  methods  of  education  are  eagerly  adopted. 

The  natural  features  of  the  country  generally  are:  1.  The  vast 
treeless  prairies,  level  or  slightly  undulating,  and  covered  with  wav- 
ing grass  brightened  in  spring  by  a  profusion  of  flowers.  2.  Sterile 
tracts  here  and  there,  thinly  covered  with  oaks,  and  known  through- 
out this  region  as  "  oak-openings,"  which  take  the  place  of  the 
"cedar-knobs"  or  "pine-barrens"  farther  south.  3.  Steep,  rugged 
blufis  rising  along  the  banks  of  the  larger  rivers,  sometimes  reaching 
a  height  of  three  or  four  hundred  feet. 

Parts  of  each  State  are  covered  with  forests  of  hickory,  walnut, 
sycamore,  buckeye,  etc.  The  extreme  northern  part  of  the  section 
is  broken  and  picturesque,  afibrding  a  strong  contrast  to  the  prairie 
region. 

OHIO. 

Ohio,  with  its  level  surface,  fertile  soil,  and  advantages  of  railroad, 
lake,  and  river,  transportation,  is  one  of  the  most  wealthy  and 
populous  States  in  the  Union.  Nearly  the  whole  country  is  either 
under  cultivation  or  covered  with  forests,  and  from  the  river  boun- 
dary on  the  south  to  the  lake  shore  on  the  north,  the  railroads  pass 
through  a  succession  of  fields,  pastures,  and  woodlands.  Wheat, 
corn,  and  tobacco  arc  largely  produced,  also  wool,  pork,  live-stock, 
and  all  other  products  of  a  fine  farming  district. 

The  first  attempt  to  make  wine  in  our  country  was  in  Ohio.  The 
vineyards  about  Cincinnati  produce  the  well-known  Catawba  wine, 
which  resembles  the  light  wines  of  Germany,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  grape  has  been  introduced  into  other  Western  States. 

The  country  generally  is  too  flat  to  admit  of  much  variety  of 
scenery,  but  the  hilly  tracts  along  the  Ohio  and  the  high  shores  of 
the  lake  afford  some  picturesque  sites.  On  one  of  the  blufls  of  Lake 
Erie  stands  Cleveland,  the  centre  of  the  lake  trade,  and  one  of  the 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  northern  section  of  the  Mississippi  basin  ?  Of 
the  advantages  of  the  country  ?  Of  its  growth  ?  Describe  the  natural  features.  What 
is  said  of  the  extreme  northern  part  ?  What  is  said  of  Ohio  ?  Of  its  agriculture  and 
productions  ?  What  of  wine-making  ?  What  are  the  other  resources  beside  farming  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  surface  and  scenery  ? 


handsomest  cities  in  the  country,  with  wide,  clean  streets,  shade- 
trees,  open  squares,  and  a  broad  expanse  of  lake  studded  with  white 
sails  in  the  summer,  and  in  midwinter  a  solitude  of  ice. 

Cincinnati,  the  chief  city  of  the  State  and  one  of  tlie  large  cities  of 
the  Union,  is  situated  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  collects  grain,  iron, 
coal,  salt,  lumber,  and  other  produce  from  the  surrounding  country  ; 
distributing  in  return  flour,  hardware,  clothing,  furniture,  and  other 
manufactures.  The  Catawba  wine  is  a  special  export,  but  Cincin- 
nati is  even  more  famed  for  its  great  pork-packing  establishments. 
Immense  numbers  of  hogs  are  supplied  annually  from  the  neighbor- 
ing States,'  and  smoked  hams,  salted  pork,  lard,  soap,  and  candles 
are  sent  to  dist.«nt  markets.  The  bristles  are  manufactured  into 
brushes,  and  Gvon  the  bones  are  used. 

The  principal  business  streets  are  on  the  plain  along  the  river, 
while  handsome  residences  rise  on  the  surrounding  hills.  In  beauty 
of  suburbs  Cincinnati  is  surpassed  by  no  inland  city.  On  the  Ken- 
tucky shore  opposite  stands  the  flourishing  city  of  Covington. 

Columbus,  the  capital  of  the  State,  has  a  population  of  only  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  thousand,  but  contains  a  number  of  handsome  public 
buildings. 

Dayton,  on  the  Miami  River,  has  fine  water-power  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes,  and  important  railroad  connections. 


INDIANA  AND  ILLINOIS. 

Indiana  contains  much  fine  timber-land,  but  its  western  part  re- 
sembles the  State  of  Illinois,  where  the  country  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  immense  prairies,  either  cultivated  or  grass  land,  with  scarce- 
ly a  tree  to  be  seen  for  miles,  or  a  rock  to  turn  the  edge  of  a  plough. 
There  are,  however,  some  tracts  of  forest,  especially  along  the 
streams,  and  a  light-colored  building  stone  is  largely  quarried  in  cer- 
tain localities.  Along  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers  the  banks  rise 
in  steep,  rugged  blufls,  singularly  wild  and  picturesque  as  con- 
trasted with  the  level  prairies,  and  many  of  them  connected  with 
romantic  Indian  legends. 

There  arc  large  beds  of  coal,  the  more  valuable  from  their  position 
near  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers  ;  and  the  lead  mines  of  Illinois 
are  of  great  importance 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  oak-openings,  the  whole  country  is  fit 
for  cultivation,  and  for  several  years  Illinois  has  produced  more 
wheat  than  any  other  State  in  the  Union. 

Indianapolis,  the  capital  of  Indiana,  is  one  of  the  greatest  railroad 
centres  in  the  country,  and  the  terminus  of  some  important  lines. 

The  other  thriving  towns  are  usually  grain  and  flour  depots. 

Chicago,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Illinois,  where  the  Chicago 
River  furnishes  a  good  harbor  on  stormy  Lake  Michigan,  is  the  great 
centre  of  trade  between  the  East  and  the  West.  It  has  grown  with 
wonderful  rapidity  into  a  large  city,  noted  for  its  wealth,  the  beauty 
of  its  public  buildings,  the  magnitude  of  its  commercial  interests 
connected  with  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  its  business  activitj'. 
Notwithstanding  the  terrible  conflagration  of  1871  which  devastated 
the  business  part  of  the  city,  and  left  thousands  of  the  inhabitants 
without  homes  or  occupation,  the  energy  of  the  people  and  the 
natural  advantages  of  position  will  doubtless  soon  restore  it  to  its 
former  importance. 


Questions.  —  Describe  Cleveland.  Where  is  Cincinnati  ?  What  is  said  of  its 
importance,  manufactures,  and  exports  ?  For  what  is  the  city  particularly  noted  ? 
What  is  said  of  Columbus  ?  Of  Dayton  ?  AVliat  is  said  of  the  surface  of  Indiana  and 
Illinois  ?  Of  the  bluffs  ?  Of  coal-beds  ?  Of  lead  ?  Of  the  soil  ?  Describe  Indianap- 
olis.    What  is  said  of  Chicago  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


•73 


The  city  extends  for  several  miles  along  the  lake  shore  and  reaches 
back  to  the  yet  unoccupied  prairie.  Its  level  site  is  regularly  laid 
out  in  broad  avenues,  which  present  a  pleasing  variety  of  street 
architecture.  The  Cottonwood  trees,  which  seem  to  have  grown  as 
rapidly  as  the  city  itself,  already  furnish  abundant  shade,  while  the 
light  cream-colored  stone,  quarried  a  few  miles  from  the  city,  gives 
to  the  streets  a  cheerful  aspect.  This  stone  is  admirably  adapted  for 
building  purposes,  being  soft  to  the  chisel,  but  hardening  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air. 

A  system  of  parks  and  boulevards  has  been  projected,  which,  when 
completed,  will  include  a  shaded  drive  of  about  twenty  miles  round 
the  city,  and  add  greatly- to  its  beauty.  Lincoln  Park,  already  laid 
out,  commands  a  fine  view  of  the  lake,  and  exhibits  the  skill  of  the 
landscape-gardener  in  obtaining  a  pleasing  diversity  of  surface  upon 
the  level  prairie  land. 

Chicago  is  supplied  with  good  water  by  means  of  a  tunnel  two 
miles  long,  constructed  under  the  lake  ;  and  two  tunnels  have  been 
made  under  the  river  which  divides  the  city,  having  double  road- 
ways and  passages  for  pedestrians,  so  that  this  busy  people  need 
wait  no  longer  for  their  draw-bridges  to  be  closed ;  but  can  walk 
or  ride  beneath  the  river's  bed  to  the  opposite  part  of  the  city. 

About  four  miles  from  the  city  ar^,  the  famous  Stock  Yards,  to 
which  immense  herds  of  cattle  are  brou^t  by  railroad  and  provided 
for  in  a  hundred  acres  of  pens.  Near  bVis  the  Cattle  Exchange,  a 
spacious  edifice,  containing  a  bank,  telegraph  office,  etc.,  where  the 
business  of  buying  and  selling  is  transacted. 

Galena  was  formerly  the  centre  of  the  lead-mining  interests,  but 
has  somewliat  declined  as  other  mines  have  been  worked.  Spring- 
lield,  in  the  centre  of  the  State,  is  the  capital.  Peoria  is  beautifully 
situated  upon  the  Illinois  River,  where  it  expands  into  a  broad,  deep 
lake.  The  fine  rolling  prairie  back  of  the  town  furnishes  its  supplies 
and  much  of  its  business.  Quincy  and  Alton  are  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  have  also  important  railroad  connections. 


MICHIGAN. 

Michigan  consists  of  two  peninsulas,  one  lying  between  Lakes 
Huron  and  Michigan,  the  other  between  Lakes  Michigan  and  Su- 
perior.    At  one  point  they  are  separated  only  by  Mackinaw  Strait. 

South  Michigan  is  a  continuation  of  the  surface  of  Indiana  and 
Ohio,  with  level  prairies,  scattered  oak-openings,  shore  bluffs,  many 
streams  and  ponds,  belts  of  forest,  and  a  rich  soil  producing  abun- 
dant crops  of  grain.  With  its  great  extenc  of  lake  shore  and  its  raij- 
roads  it  has  uncommon  commercial  facilities  for  an  inland  State. 

Detroit,  on  Detroit  River,  connecting  Lake  St.  Clair  with  Lake 
Erie,  is  the  chief  city  and  the  avenue  of  the  lake  trade. 

Lansing,  in  the  interior,  is  the  capital  of  the  State. 

Ann  Arbor,  not  far  from  Detroit,  is  one  of  the  growing  Western 
towns,  and  is  the  seat  of  Michigan  University,  which  has  over  a 
thousand  students,  and  is  open  to  both  men  and  women. 

North  Michigan.  —  Singularly  striking  is  the  contrast  between 
tlic  southern  peninsula,  fair,  fertile,  level,  with  cultivated  fields  and 
thriving  towns,  and  North  Michigan,  wild,  rugged,  and  mountainous, 
in  many  parts  bleak  and  sterile,  and  almost  uninhabited 

The  rocky  shores  of  Lake  Superior  are  indented  by  deep  bays  and 
surrounded  by  high  cliffs  ;  and  west  from  St.  Mary's  Falls  the  abrupt 
sandstone  bluffs,  as  seen  from  the  lake,  assume  fantastic  forms  of 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  other  towns  ?  Where  and  what  is  Michigan  ?  De- 
scribe South  Michigan.  What  is  said  of  Detroit  ?  I^nsing  ?  Ann  Arbor  ?  Describe 
the  northern  peninsula.     In  what  points  do  the  two  peninsulas  differ  f 


castles,  temples,  pillars,  etc.,  and  are  known  as  the  "Pictured  Rocks." 
In  the  winter  season  terrible  storms  prevail,  and  the  waves  of  this 
immense  lake,  charged  with  ice,  beat  upon  the  rocky  shore  with  all 
the  power  of  ocean  waves.  Nowhere  else  on  inland  waters  is  the 
scenery  so  bold  and  grand. 

If  the  southern  peninsula  gathers  wealth  from  its  broad  grain-fields 
and  timber-lands,  the  bleak,  rugged  north  country  contains  inex- 
haustible mineral  treasures.  Copper,  silver,  iron,  and  salt  are  found. 
Copper,  especially,  exists  in  such  quantities  and  such  purity  that 
this  is  now  regarded  as  the  great  copper  region  of  the  continent. 

]^ 

WISCONSIN  AND   MINNESOTA. 

Through  both  of  these  States  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
section  still  continue,  —  rolling  prairies,  fine  soil,  abundant  grain 
crops,  belts  of  timber,  and  steep  bluffs  along  the  rivers  and  lake 
shores.  But  they  also  include  the  beautiful  and  picturesque  region 
of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  with  its  hills  and  groves,  its  streams, 
springs,  lakes,  and  shallows  overgrown  with  wild  rice,  and  its  clear 
waters  falling  in  cascades  and  rapids,  or  running  through  narrow, 
rocky  gorges.  These  gorges,  whose  perpendicular  walls  of  rock 
sometimes  rise  a  hundred  feet,  as  in  Wisconsin  River,  are  known 
throughout  all  the  Western  country  as  "  dalles,"  those  of  the  Pacific 
region  being  on  a  still  larger  scale. 

The  largest  rivers  are  the  Wisconsin,  Chippewa,  St.  Croix,  and 
Minnesota,  all  flowing  into  the  Mississippi,  which  rises  near  the 
northern  boundary  of  Minnesota  and  flows  slightly  southeast,  form- 
ing part  of  the  boundary  of  the  two  States. 

The  lead  region  of  Wisconsin  is  no  less  valuable  than  that  of 
Illinois  ;  and  coal  and  iron  are  found  more  or  less  in  all  these  States. 

The  northern  part  of  the  State,  almost  entirely  unsettled,  furnishes 
vast  quantities  of  lumber,  but  towns  are  fast  growing  up  in  the  south. 

Milwaukee,  a  place  of  about  sixty  thousand  inhabitants,  is  situ- 
ated on  Lake  Michigan,  most  of  the  residences  being  on  the  high 
bluff  over- 
looking the 
lake.  It  is  a 
great  grain 
depot,  con- 
t ai  n  i  n  g 
some  of 
the  largest 
flour  -  mills 
in  the  coun- 
try. Beef, 
pork,  and 
butter  are 
also  largely  exported. 

Madison  is  the  capital  of  Wisconsin. 

St.  Paul,  the  chief  city  and  capital  of  Min- 
nesota, is  beautifully  situated  just  below  the 
Falls   of  St.    Anthony,    surrounded   by   bluffs, 
caverns,  and  waterfalls.     The  Falls  of  Minnehaha 
Brown's  Falls,,  tire   falls    and   rapids   of  the   St 

•oix,  and  many  lesser  cascades,  are  in  the  neighborhood. 


Groix,  and  many  1 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  chief  wealth  of  the  southern?  Of  the  northern? 
Where  .are  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  ?  What  are  the  general  features  of  the  coun- 
try ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  northern  part  ?  What  are  dalles  ?  'What  are  the 
principal  rivers  ?  Whitt  is  said  of  minerals  ?  Describe  Milwaukee.  What  and  where 
is  the  capital  of  Wisconsin  ?    Of  Minnesota  ?    Describe  St.  Paul. 


74 


OUR  WORLD. 


IOWA. 

In  Iowa  there  is  less  cultivated  land  than  in  Illinois,  and  broad 
grtiss  prairies  become  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  country, 
where  one  may  travel  for  days  over  natural  pastures  broken  only 
by  hazel-bushes  or  thickets  of  wild-rose  and  honeysuckle,  lu  some 
parts  groves  and  belts  of  forest  alternate  with  grass  land,  but  in 
North  Iowa  the  scenery  is  bolder,  —  hills  or  mounds  are  topped  with 
lofty  oaks,  streams  pour  over  precipitous  rocks,  and  the  banks  of  the 
larger  rivers  rise  in  craggy  bluffs. 

Iowa  is  rich  in  iron  and  lead,  but  the  chief  mineral  wealth  of  the 
State  is  in  its  extensive  coal-beds. 

All  this  prairie  country  abounds  with  quails,  wild  turkeys,  and 
grouse  or  prairioJlens. 

The  State  is  well  watered  by  large  rivers. 

Dubuque,  the  oldest  city,  is  situated  on  the  Mississippi,  and  is  the 
chief  market  for  grain  and  lumber,  and  the  depot  of  the  Iowa  lead- 
mining  region. 

Des  Moines,  the  capital,  \^.-tm  a  river  of  the  same  name.  Daven- 
port, Muscatine,  Burlington,  and  Keokuk  are  important  places. 

In  all  these  Central  StateW^nanufactures  are  increasing,  but  the 
farming,  mining,  and  grazing  iW^rc^^ts  greatly  predominate. 

With  Iowa  closes  the  description  of  States  bordering  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi, it  being  the  last  of  the  .special  wheat  or  grain  States.  Graz- 
ing or  stock-raising  is  the  leading  occupation  of  the  more  western 
States  and  Territories. 


MAP  STUDY. 

MISSOURI 

Boundaries.  —  North  ?  East  ?  Separated  by  ?  South  ?  West  ?  Partly 
separateJ  by  ?  t*J^\  ^^ 

Mountains.  —  Ozark  Mountains  in  the  southwest.  Iff 

Rivers.  —  M i  on  the  eastern  boundary.     M i  flows  through  the  State 

into  ?     Some  of  its  branches  are  ? 

Cities.  —  St.  Louis  on  ?    Jefferson  City,i|he  capital,  on  ?     Hannibal  on  ? 

Products.  —  Grain,  lead,  and  iron. 

•KENTUCKY. 

Boundaries.  —  North  V  Separated  by  ?  East  ?  South  ?  West  ?  Separated 
by? 

Cumberland  Mountains  in  east. 

Rivers.  —  The  O — o  and  M i  are  boundary  lines.     Other  rivers  are  ? 

Cities.  —  Louisville  on  ?     Paducah  on  V     Frankfort  on  ?     Covington  on  V 
Products. —  Corn,  live-stock,  tobacco. 

OHIO.  ^ 

Boundaries.  —  North  by  ?  And  shore  line  on  ?  East  ?  Southeast  ?  Separ-' 
ate.iby?     AVest  ?  .' 

Rivers.  —  The  O — o  is  a  boundary  river.     The  S o  flows?     The^I i 

flows?     Other  rivers  are  ?     Flowing  into? 

Cities.  —  Cin^iguati  on  ?  Cleveland  and  Sandusky  on  ?  Columbus  on  ? 
Dayton  on  ?  .   • 

I        Products.  — •  Grain,  wine,  wool,  pork. 

INDIANA. 

Boundaries.  —  North ?     East?     South?     Separated  by  ?     West? 

Rivers.  —  The  W h  flows  into  ?    Its  branches  are  ? 

Cities.  —  Indianapolis  where  ?     New  Albany  on  ?     Fort  Wayne  where  ? 
Chief  product.  —  Wheat. 

-i — — 

Questions.  —  Where  is  Iowa  ?  What  is  said  of  this  State  ?  Describe  the  prairies. 
The  northern  part.  What  metals  are  abundant  ?  What  is  said  of  coal  ?  What  is 
said  of  Dubuque  ?    Of  other  towns  ?    What  is  said  of  occupations  ? 


njiiNOis. 

Boundaries.  —  North  ?     East  ?     Partly  separated  by  ?     And  with  shore  Une 
on  ?     South  ?     Separated  by  ?     West  ?     Separated  by  ? 
Rivers.  —  The  Illinois  River  flows  into  ?     Other  rivers  are  ?  * 

Cities.  —  Chicago  on  ?     Peoria,  Galena,  Springfield,  Cairo,  where  ? 
Chief  product.  —  Wheat.     (Minerals.  —  Lead  and  coal.) 

MICHIGAN. 

Boundaries.  —  South  Peninsula.  —  East  ?     South  ?    West  ? 
Saginaw  Bay  where  ?     Grand  Traverse  Bay  formed  by  ? 
Rivers.  —  Saginaw  River  flows  into  ?     Grand  River  flows  into  ? 
Detroit  on  ?     Lansing  on  ?     Ann  Arbor  on  ?     Kalamazoo  on  ? 
North   Peninsula. — Boundaries.  —  North?      Southwest?      Southeast? 
Separated  from  South  Micliigan  by  V 
Manjiiette  on  ?     Eagle  Harbor  on  ?     Sault  St.  Marie  on  ? 
Resources.  —  Copper,  grain,  lumber. 

"WISCONSIN. 

Boundaries.  —  North  ?     East  shore  on  ?     South  V     West  ? 
Rivers.  —  Wisconsm  and  other  streams  flow  southwest  into  ? 
Green  Bay  formed  by  ?  ' 

Milwaukee,  the  chief,  city,  on  ?  Madison,  the  capital,  where  ?  Fond  du  Lac 
where  ? 

Products.  —  Wheat  and  other  grains. 

MINNESOTA. 

Boundaries.  —  North  ?     East  ?     South  ?     West  ? 

Rivers.  —  Mississippi  River  rises  in  ?  Flows  southeast  and  forms  part  of 
boundary  between  ?     St.  Croix  flows  into  ? 

St.  Paul,  the  chief  city,  on?  Near  mouth  of?  Minneapolis  on  ?  Duluth 
where  V 

Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  near  the  head  of  navigation,  on  ? 

Resources.  —  Grain,  lumber,  wool. 

lO-WA. 

Boundaries.  —  North  ?     East?     South?     West? 

Rivers.  —  Boundary  rivers  are  M i  and  M i.     The  Des  Moines  flows 

into  y 

Dubuque  on?    Davenport  on?    Council  Bluffs  on  V    The  capital  is  ?    Where? 
Resources.  —  Grain,  coal,  lead. 

SUMMARY. 


SOUTH  SECTIOK. 

Extensive  cypress-swamps  and  cane- 
brakes  along  the  Gulf  shore  and  up  the 
Mississippi  and  its  branches. 

Sterile  tracts,  or  "pine  barrens." 
■  Surface  generally  level,  cotton  and  sugar 
cultivated. 

Forests  of  cypress,  live-oak,  and  mag- 
nolia. 

Muddy,  sluggish  streams,  forming  sand- 
bars and  deltas.^ 

Exports,  —  cotton,  sugar,  and  molasses. 


THE   MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY. 

NORTH  SECTION. 
Steep,  rocky  bluffs  along  the  banks  of 
the  Mississippi  and  other  large  rivers. 


Sterile  tracts,  or  "oak  openings." 

Rolling  prairies,    either  grass  pastures 
or  fields  of  wheat. 

^Forests  of  hickory,  black  walnut,  pop- 
lar, oak,  chestnut,  and  sycamore. 

C!Icar   rivers,    rnniiing  through  gorges, 
or  falling  in  cascades  over  ledges  of  rock. 

Exports,  —  wheat,    flour,    grain,    beef, 
and  pork. 


CENTRAL  STATES. 

The  Central  States  are  broken  and  hilly,  with  "cedar  knobs"  and  extensive  forests. 
Indian  corn  and  tobacco  are  cultivated.     Hogs,  mules,  and  horses  are  raised. 

Mountainous  Regions.  —  The  eastern  parts  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  are  crossed 
by  the  Cumberland  Moimtains,  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  system.     The  western  parts  ^ 
of  Arkansas  and  Missouri  are  cros.sed  by  the  Ozark  Mountains.     The  northern  parts  of 
Michigan  and  Minnesota  are  broken  and  hilly. 

Rivers.  —  The  Yazoo,  the  Ohio  with  its  branches,  Tennessee  and  Cumberland,  the 
Illinois,  and  the  Wisconsin  flow  from  the  east  into  the  Mississippi ;  and  the  Red,  Ar- 
kansas, Missouri,  Des  Moines,  and  Minnesota  flow  from  the  n  est  into  the  Mississippi. 


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76 


OUR  WORLD. 


The  Rio 


The  Sabine,  Pearl,  Tombigbee,  and  Alabama  flow  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Grande  separates  the  United  States  from  Mexico. 

Minerals.  —  Iron  and  lead  in  Missouri,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois.  Coal  in 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  most  of  the  other  States.     Copper  and  iron  in  Michigan. 

Cities.  —  New  Orleans,  the  chief  Southern  port.  Mobile,  next  in  importance  to 
New  Orleans  as  a  cotton  port.  St.  Louis,  the  chief  city  of  Missouri,  and  a  great 
trading-centre  a  little  below  the  junction  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  Rivers.  Cin- 
cinnati, the  chief  city  of  Ohio  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  noted  for  wine  and  the  pork 
trade.  Louisville  and  Nashville,  the  chief  cities  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  have  a 
large  river  trade.  Chicago,  in  Illinois,  on  Lake  Michigan,  is  the  great  trading-centre 
of  the  Northern  section,  and  connected  by  railroad  with  New  York  and  San  Francisco. 
Milwaukee,  in  Wisconsin,  is  a  great  provision-depot,  exporting  flour,  beef,  and  pork. 
Indianapolis,  in  Indiana,  is  a  great  railroad-centre.  St.  Paul  is  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion, near  St.  Anthony's  Falls,  on  the  Mississippi. 

THE   GRAZING  DISTRICT. 

[Refer  to  Map  of  the  United  States.] 

A  line  running  southward  from  the  northwest  corner  of  Minnesota 
to  the  southwest  corner  of  Louisiana  marks  pretty  nearly  the  west- 
ern limit  of  all  the  States  bordering  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi ;  but  between  this  line  and  the  Kocky  Mountains  there  is 
still  a  broad  belt  of  prairie  lands.  There  is  no  marked  difference  be- 
tween the  prairies,  wheat-fields,  and  small  towns  of  Iowa  and  Mis- 
souri, and  those  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska ;  yet  in  the  latter  Slates 
the  cultivated  lands  bear  a  smaller  proportion  to  the  vast  grass 
plains,  the  belts  of  woodland  are  more  rare,  the  towns  fewer  and 
confined  chiefly  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  newly  constructed  i-ail- 
roads,  while  a  fine  grazing  region  extends  toward  the  mountains,  still 
inhabited  by  herds  of  buffaloes  and  antelopes. 

*■  Kansas  and  Nebraska  —  It  is  not  that  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
are  unfit  for  cultivation,  but  that  these  States  are  so  admirably 
adapted  for  grazing  that  stock-raising  is  the  easiest  and  most  profit- 
able occupation.  If  we  consider  that  Kansas  alone  is  larger  than  all 
the  six  New  England  States,  and  that  it  contains  few  towns  of  more 
than  five  thousand  inhabitants,  we  may  have  some  idea  of  the  extent 
and  value  of  these  natural  pastures  covered  with  a  variety  of  nutri- 
tious grasses,  some  of  which  are  so  hardy  and  abundant  as  to  last  all 
the  year  ;  drying  into  hay  on  the  ground,  and  thus  supplying  food  for 
immense  herds  of  cattle  through  summer  and  winter.  In  a  large  part 
of  the  country  where  these  hardy  grasses  prevail,  the  Nebraska 
stock-raiser,  instead  of  carefully  sheltering  and  feeding  his  cattle,  as 
is  done  in  New  England,  turns  them  into  the  prairies  by  the  thousand 
to  find  food  and  shelter  like  the  wild  herds. 

As  railroads  multiply,  immense  numbers  of  live  cattle  are  sent  East 
from  these  plains,  together  with  wheat  and  grain  from  the  States 
bordering  on  the  Mississippi.  Thus  this  Western  region  becomes  a 
vast  provision-depot,  supplying  both  bread  and  meat  to  the  crowded 
population  of  the  manufacturing  cities  of  the  East. 

Grouse  and  wild  turkeys  abound  here,  as  in  Iowa ;  and  another  in- 
habitant of  the  prairies  is  a  singular  little  animal  called,  from  its  yelp- 
ing cry,  the  "  prairie  dog,"  though  it  is  much  more  like  a  woodchuck 
than  a  dog.  These  animals  congregate  in  large  communities,  bur- 
rowing in  the  earth  and  throwing  up  mounds  a  foot  or  more  high. 
It  is  amusing  to  see  one  of  these  prairie-dog  towns  with  the  crowd  of 
comical  little  creatures  squatting  on  their  mounds,  and  soberly  sui> 
veying  the  prospect,  but  hastily  tumbling  into  their  holes  at  tha 

Questions.  —  What  States  border  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Missis-sippi  River? 
What  States  or  Territories  lie  immediately  west  of  these  ?  What  is  the  character  of 
this  belt  of  country  between  Missouri  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  ?  What  is  said  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  especially  ?  What  of  the  size  of  Kansas  ?  Describe  the  grazing 
region  and  manner  of  stock-raising.  What  is  said  of  the  exports  of  these  States! 
What  is  said  of  prairie  dogs  ? 


Prairie-dog  Town. 

sound  of  approaching  steps.  Owls  and  rattlesnakes,  a  strange  com- 
bination of  visitors,  are  usually  found  in  the  burrows,  probably  for 
the  purpose  of  devouring  the  young  animals. 

In  the  western  part  of  these  States  we  find,  instead  of  towns,  forts 
or  outposts,  where  United  States  soldiers  are  stationed  for  the  pro- 
tection of  settlers.  Scattered  throughout  this  Western  country  are 
"  Eeservations,"  or  districts  set  aside  by  the  government  for  the 
remnants  of  Indian  tribes.  Some  of  these  Indians  live  quietly  in 
their  villages,  conforming  somewhat  to  the  modes  of  civilized  life, 
and  occasionally  working  as  laborers  for  the  farmers  or  graziers,  but 
appearing  among  their  own  people  in  full  Indian  costume  on  all  fes- 
tive occasions.  Other  more  savage  and  vindictive  tribes,  often  in- 
cited to  deeds  of  violence  by  the  frauds  and  abuses  they  suffer  from 
unprincipled  white  men,  give  much  trouble,  murdering  and  plunder- 
ing settlers  and  travellers. 

Towns. — Leavenworth,  on  the  Missouri  River,  is  the  largest  town 
in  Kansas.  Topeka,  the  capital,  is  on  the  Kansas  River.  Lawrence 
is  a  leading  town. 

Lincoln,  the  capital  of  Nebraska,  and  Nebraska  City  are  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  State.  Omaha,  on  the  Missouri  River,  is  the 
starting-place  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  and  is  growing  rapidly. 

Dakota  is  still  inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians.  The  State  is  crossed 
from  northwest  to  southeast  by  the  Missouri  River,  which  has  many 
branches.  The  settlers  are  engaged  in  grazing,  farming,  and  the  fur 
trade,  which,  on  the  borders  of  Canada,  where  the  forests  are  more 
extensive,  is  quite  a  profitable  occupation. 

Yankton,  the  capital,  is  on  the  Missouri,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dakota 
River. 

The  Indian  Territory,  south  of  Kansas,  is  under  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  but  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  the  Creeks, 
Seminoles,  ChoctaWs,  and  other  Indian  tribes,  who  were  removed 


Questions.  — What  is  said  of  forts  and  Indians  ?  What  and  where  are  the  chief 
towns  of  Kansas  ?  Of  Nebraska  ?  What  is  said  of  Dakota  ?  Of  the  occupations  of 
the  people  ?    Where  and  what  is  the  Indian  Territory  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


77 


from  the  more  Eastern  States,  and  have  become  more  or  less  civilized, 
cultivate  the  soil,  manufacture  a  little,  and  have  schools,  churches, 
etc.     The  capital  and  chief  town  is  Tahlequah. 

Texas,  the  largest  State  in  the  Union,  occupying  the  immense 
tract  between  Louisiana  and  the  Rio  Grande,  resembles  Mexico  in 
climate  and  productions  more  than  any  other  part  of  the  United  States. 
It  was  first  settled  by  Spaniards  and  belonged  to  Mexico  ;  but  quite  a 
large  American  population  emigrated  there,  and,  dissatisfied  with  the 
Mexican  rule,  desired  admission  into  the  United  States.  After  re- 
peated difficulties,  which  resulted  in  a  war  between  Mexico  and  our 
country,  the  annexation  of  the  new  State  was  eflected. 

The  character  of  a  country  is,  however,  less  easily  changed  than 
its  government,  and  there  remain  the  almost  tropical  climate  of  Texas, 
with  seasons  of  drought  and  rain,  the  peculiar,  thorny  vegetation 
characteristic  of  Mexico,  the  Mexican  towns  with  their  massive  old 
Spanish  buildings,  the  herds  of  cattle  and  wild  horses  on  the  plains, 
the  "ranchos,"  or  cattle  farms,  of  the  stock-raisers,  and  the  Texan 


plainsman  scouring  the  prairies  after  the  wild  herds,  a?id  using  the 
lasso  with  all  the  dexterity  of  a  South  American.  The  country  along 
the  coast  is  low,  often  marshy,  with  forests  of  cypress,  live-oak,  and 
palmetto,  much  like  the  other  Gulf  States.  The  fertile  soil  produces 
large  crops  and  a  profusion  of  fruits  and  flowers. 

The  American  inhabitants  have  settled  chiefly  in  the  beautiful  agri- 
cultural region  of  East  Texas,  and  are  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of 
cotton  and  sugar-cane,  and  in  carrying  on  the  commerce  of  the  State, 
chiefly  through  New  Orleans  and  New  York,  exporting  cotton,  sugar, 
pepper,  vanilla,  and  also  hides  and  cattle  from  the  interior. 

Galveston,  on  Galveston  Bay,  is  the  principal  seaport.  Houston, 
on  a  stream  flowing  into  Galveston  Bay,  and  Austin,  the  capital,  are 
the  chief  American  towns.  San  Antonio,  an  old  Spanish  town,  beau- 
tifully situated  in  a  fertile  district,  is  the  centre  of  the  inland  trade 
through  California  and  New  Mexico. 

As  we  leave  the  coast,  the  forests  and  plantations  are  gradually 
replaced  by  vast  prairies,  and  the  live-oak  and  cypress  by  the  white- 
flowered  yucca,  the  aloe,  and  the  mesquit  tree,  resembling  our 
locust,  but  bearing  smaller  leaves,  long,  flat  pods,  and  large  thorns. 
These  are  the  great  grazing  lands  of  Texas,  where  herds  of  buffa- 
loes, cattle,  and  mustangs,  or  wild  horses,  roam  over  the  prairies. 

Questions.  —  What  is  the  condition  of  the  Indians  there  ?  What  is  the  capital  ? 
Where  is  Texas  ?  What  is  said  of  its  history  ?  Describe  the  country.  What  is  said 
of  the  coast  region  and  productions  ?  Of  the  American  population  ?  Of  trade  and 
exports  ?  What  and  where  arc  the  principal  towns  ?  What  is  said  of  San  Antonio  ? 
Describe  the  prairie  or  grazing  region.     What  is  the  Texas  "mustang"? 


Great  attention  is  given  to  raising  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and 
thousands  of  aidmals  often  belong  to  one  ranclio,  or  cattle  farm. 

Farther  inland  still,  the  vegetation  consists  chiefly  of  patches  of 
bunch-grass  or  of  artemisia,  a  wild  wormwood,  though  genei'ally 
called  sage-bush  ;  and  toward  the  Pecos  River  the  country  becomes 
an  absolute  desert.  Travellers  suffer  greatly  for  want  of  water,  and 
animals  perish  with  thirst,  as  on  the  African  Sahara.  This  barren 
plain  is  the  bftginning  of  the  great  desert  which  stretches  over  the 
plateau  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

The  northwest  border  of  the  State,  crossed  by  spurs  of  mountains, 
is  a  labyrinth  of  abrupt  ridges,  deep  gorges,  and  lofty  walls  of  lime- 
stone. In  some  places  the  rivers  seem  to  have  worn  deep  cuts,  or 
canons,  in  the  solid  rock,  which  rises  in  perpendicular  walls  to  the 
height  of  many  hundred  feet.  These  dark,  narrow  defiles,  often 
several  miles  long,  form  a  striking  feature,  not  only  of  this  border 
region  of  Texas,  but  of  all  the  plateau  northward.  One  of  the  wild- 
est, most  romantic  gorges  here  is  the  pass  of  the  Guadaloupe  Moun- 
tains, closely  hemmed  in  by  overhanging  rocks.     Throughout  all  this 


and  Caotl. 

northern  and  western  portion  of  the  State  the  peculiar  Mexican  flora 
prevails.  Sparsely  scattered  over  the  dry  plains,  filling  gorges,  and 
clinging  to  the  bare  rocks  are  the  agave  or  aloe,  with  its  tall  stem  and 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  stock-raising?  AVhat  is  a  rancho  ?  Describe  the 
desert.  Describe  the  northwestern  border  country.  Describe  the  peculiar  vegetation 
of  Texas. 


■78 


OUR  WOKLD. 


crown  of  yellow  blossoms;  the  prickly  pear,  with  fleshy  leaves  grow- 
ing one  out  of  another;  the  singular  ball-cactus,  growing  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  or  on  the  bare  rocks  ;  and  the  gigantic  stems  of  the 
saguara,  rising  from  the  plain  like  fluted  pillars  as  large  as  a  man's 
arm,  and  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high. 

As  yet  the  only  railroads  are  along  the  coast,  and  all  transportation 
through  the  interior  is  by  means  of  mules  and  wagons.  Long  trains 
of  emigrants  or  traders,  reminding  one  of  the  caravans  of  Africa, 
cross  the  praij'ies  and  the  desert  from  San  Antonio  to  El  Paso,  on  the 
border  of  New  Mexico.  .  The  northwestern  part  of  Texas  is  inhab- 
ited by  the  Apaches  and  other  tribes  of  Indians ;  and,  in  addition  to 
the  want  of  water  and  the  fatigue  of  the  tedious  journey,  there  is 
always  the  possibility  of  an  attack  from  the  savages. 

MAP  STUDY. 

[See  Map  of  the  United  States.] 

Dakota  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  ?  On  the  north  by  ?  On  the  east  by  ? 
On  the  south  by  ?     It  is  crossed  from  northwest  to  southeast  by  M i  River. 

Nebraska  lies  between  D a  on  the  north  and  C o  and  K s  on  the 

south.    It  is  crossed  by  the  P e  River  flowing  into  ?    The  capital  is  ?    Omaha 

is  on  ?     Nebraska  City  is  on  ? 

Kansas  lies  west  of  ?  East  of?  Between  what  on  the  north  and  south  ?  It 
is  crossed  by  K s  River  flowing  into  ?  Topeka,  the  capital,  is  on  ?  Leav- 
enworth, the  largest  city,  is  on  ?     Lawrence  is  on  ? 

Indian  Territory  lies  west  of?  Between  what  on  the  north  and  the  south  ? 
It  is  crossed  by  the  A s  River. 

Texas  lies  south  of  the  Indian  Territory.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  ? 
Southeast  by  ?  Southwest  by  ?  Separated  from  it  by  ?  Northwest  by  ?  The 
rivers  T y,  B s,  and  C o  flow  southeastward  into  ?     The  Pecos  into  ? 

Cities.  —  Galveston  on  ?     Houston  on  ?     Austin  on  ?     San  Antonio  on  ? 


THE  WESTERN   PLATEAU. 

[Refer  to  Map  of  the  United  States.] 

The  great  Western  Plateau,  occupying  nearly  one  third  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States,  between  the  Eocky  Mountains  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  range,  widens  to  its  greatest  breadth  in 
the  middle,  where  the  Rocky  Mountains  curve  eastward  and  the 
Pacific  coast  curves  westward. 

This  broad  plateau  is  broken  by  short  ridges,  clusters,  and  moun- 
tain knots.  Extending  through  its  midst  is  a  desert-waste,  or  rather 
a  succession  of  deserts,  destitute  of  water,  bare  of  vegetation,  ex- 
cept here  and  there  a  solitary  mesquit-tree  or  patches  of  dry,  ragged 
sage  bush,  and  with  its  monotonous  level  broken  only  by  some  moun- 
tain ridge  which  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain  in  still  more  awful 
desolation,  its  great  masses  ofvhite  rock  reflecting  the  sunlight  with 
pa,inful  brilliancy  in  the  clear,  dry  atmosphere,  and  without  a  tree, 
bush,  or  even  a  handful  of  soil  on  its  sides.  It  is  thought,  however, 
that  the  general  barrenness  of  these  plains  is  caused  less  by  sterility 
of  the  soil  than  by  want  of  water,  and  that  where  irrigation  is  pos- 
sible much  of  the  land  may  be  made  fit  for  cultivation. 

On  the  east  the  vast  system  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  its 
various  ridges,  groups,  and  peaks,  runs  through  Idaho,  Montana, 
Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.  Each  new  explorer  brings 
accounts  of  some  marvel  just  discovered,  and  many  of  the  beauties 
and  wonders  of  nature  distributed  over  the  earth  seem  to  be  exhib- 

Questions. — "What  means  of  transportation?  What  is  said  of  the  Indians? 
What  Is  said  of  the  extent  and  position  of  the  Western  plateau  ?  Describe  this 
plateau.  What  is  said  of  the  sterility  of  the  soil  ?  Through  what  States  and  Territo- 
ries do  the  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  pass  ? 


ited  in  this  vast  mountain  region.  Beside  lofty  summits,  deep 
ravines,  magnificent  cataracts,  light  cascades,  caverns,  and  frightful 
chasms,  there  are  also  basaltic  columns,  extinct  craters,  mud  volca- 
noes, hot  springs,  and  geysers. 

The  Sierra  Nevada,  with  its  snow-capped  peaks,  slopes  on  the  west 
toward  fair  valleys,  mild  and  genial,  and  with  a  luxuriance  of  vegeta- 
tion nowhere  else  known  in  these  latitudes.  Here  are  the  big  trees 
of  California,  and  wonderful  fruits  and  flowers.  -Beyond  the  Cali- 
fornian  valleys  the  outer  Coast  Range  slopes  to  the  long,  narrow 
shore  line  of  the  Pacific,  where  the  great  port  of  San  Francisco  is 
engaged  in  trade  with  the  populous  empires  of  the  Eastern  world. 

Resources.  —  Beside  the  extensive  deserts  of  the  plateau  there 
are  large  tracts  of  grass-land  for  stock-raising,  and  fertile  valleys  or 
river  bottoms,  vsrith  forest  belts  of  oak  and  cottonwood.  The  farmer 
finds  fields  to  cultivate,  and  the  cattle  of  the  stock-raiser  roam  by 
thousands  over  the  plain.  The  great  pine  forests  of  the  north  afl'ord 
fine  lumber ;  and  toward  the  northern  boundary  skins  and  furs  are 
obtained  in  suflScient  numbers  to  make  the  trade  profitable.  But  the 
chief  wealth  of  the  country  lies  in  its  mines.  Gold,  silver,  lead, 
copper,  salt,  and  quicksilver  are  found  more  or  less  abundantly  in 
nearly  all  these  Western  States  and  Territories. 

History.  —  A  few  years  ago  this  portion  of  our  country  was  consid- 
ered almost  uninhabitable,  but  with  the  rise  and  growth  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  opening  of  mines,  and  the  construction  of  roads,  the  popu- 
lation»  has  increased  wonderfully,  and  towns  are  springing  up  over 
the  more  accessible  parts  of  the  vast  territory.  Immense  tracts, 
however,  are  still  unsettled  and  inhabited  onlj^  hy  Indians,  or  com- 
panies of  miners  tempted  into  the  wilderness  by  rich  veins  of  gold 
or  silver,  and  desperadoes  who  haunt  the  outskirts  of  civilization, 
pursuing  a  wild,  adventurous  life  free  from  all  restraints  of  law. 

Looking  upon  the  map  of  this  Western  country,  wc  find,  scattered 
over  the  southern  portion,  many  Spanish  names,  as  San  Jose,  Sacra- 
mento, Santa  Fe,  etc.  ;  and,  in  fact,  long  before  pioneers  from  the 
Eastern  States  had  crossed  the  Mississippi,  early  settlements  or  ex- 
plorations were  made  here  by  the  Spaniards,  who  have  left  their 
traces  not  only  in  the  names  but  in  the  old  towns,  the  ruins,  and  the 
evidences  of  the  teaching  of  Jesuit  priests  among  the  Indians.  Mex- 
icans are  to  be  seen  in  most  of  the  settlements,  where  their  dress, 
language,  and  customs  are  familiar.  Their  term  rancho,  or  ranch, 
is  adopted  in  the  grazing  regions,  where  also  the  lasso  is  generally 
used. 

The  Mexican  or  Texan  flora  also  extends  throughout  these  South- 
ern States  and  Territories.  The  yucca  and  artemisia,  or  Mexican  sage- 
bush,  are  everywhere  common,  and  the  thorny  mesquit  is  the  charac- 
teristic tree  of  a  large  part  of  the  country.  In  the  more  fertile  val- 
leys or  river  bottoms  there  are  forests  of  oak  and  cottonwood,  but 
timber  is  scarce,  and  the  absence  of  foliage*a  general  feature  of  the 
region. 

New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  —  The  great  desert  beginning  in 
Texas,  continues  into  New  Mexico  with  its  prairie-dogs,  lizards, 
rattlesnakes,  and  straggling  mesquit-bushes.  Across  it  long  wagon- 
trains  make  their  way  from  El  Paso  to  Santa  F<5,  or  to  the  salt 
springs  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  Rivers,  a  journey  of  sixty 
days,  to  obtain  the  annual  supply  of  salt.  Another  route  leads 
from  St.  Louis  to  Santa  Fe,  formerly  much  travelled  by  emigrants. 

Questions.  —  What  are  the  natural  features  of  this  mountain  region  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  country  westward  ?  Of  the  coast  line  ?  What  arc  the 
resources  of  the  whole  region  ?  What  is  said  of  the  growth  of  the  country  ?  Wluit 
of  the  unsettled  tracts  ?  What  traces  of  the  Spaniards  are  found  over  the  Soiithern 
section  ?  What  vegetation  prevails  ?  What  is  said  of  the  desert  of  New  Mexico  ? 
What  two  wagon-routes  through  the  Territory  ?    Where  is  Santa  Fe  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


79 


Railroads  are  opening  into  this  country  rapidly,  but  it  will  be 
a  long  time  before  the  wagon-trains  of  the  wilder  regions  are  entirely 
superseded.  There  are  fine  grazing  lands  in  New  Mexico,  and  rich 
mines,  though  but  little  worked. 

In  Arizona  Bilver  is  abundant,  and  the  Santa  Rita  mines  have  been 
worked  for  some  time  ;  but  mining  is  both  difficult  and  dangerous  in 
those  unsettled  parts  of  the  country.  The  want  of  water  and  of  fuel 
is  a  great  drawback,  and  when  the  ore  has  been  smelted  with  no  bet- 
ter wood  than  dry  sage-bush,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  carry  the  metal 
to  the  nearest  station  without  being  attacked  by  Indians.  The  Mex- 
icans employed  in  the  mines  arc  scarcely  more  to  be  trusted  than  the 
savages,  often  betraying  the  wagon-train  into  their  hands,  or  escaping 
with  the  silver  from  the  mines. 

The  American  population  is  still  very  small  in  this  region,  the 
towns  are  few,  and  at  intervals  are  United  States  forts,  with  garri- 
sons to  protect  the  country. 

Two  classes  of  Indians  inhabit  this  region  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona, 
and  the  southern  part  of  California  :  1st,  the  Comanches  and  Apaches, 
fierce,  roving  tribes,  who  are  implacably  hostile  to  the  whites,  and 
averse  to  all  regular  occupations,  and  who  murder  the  miners,  attack 
emigrant-trains,  and  steal  cattle  from  the  ranches ;  2d,  the  Pimos, 
Papagos,  and  other  friendly  tribes,  who  live  in  villages,  cultivate 
the  ground  a  little,  work  in  metals,  and  manufacture,  with  the  sim- 
plest implements,  cotton  cloth,  blankets,  and  earthenware.  Their 
habitations  are  circular  in  form,  made  of  stakes  and  rushes,  thatched 
with  corn  husks,  and  not  more  than  seven  feet  high. 

Nevada  and  Utah,  lying  north  of  Arizona,  include  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  great  basin  or  desert.  Beside  the  Humboldt  Mountains 
in  Nevada  and  the  Wahsatch  Range,  which  traverses  Utah,  there 
are  several  lesser  ridges.  Timber  is  scarce  and  vegetation  scanty, 
but  there  are  some  grass  plains  for  grazing.  The  silver  mines  of 
Nevada  are  very  valuable,  and  Utah  contains  iron  and  coal  in  abun- 
dance, and  many  varieties  of  marble.     In  the  mountain  region  of  the 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  about  the  iniiios  of  Arizona  and  the  difficulties  of  work- 
ing them  ?  Where  are  the  Santa  Rita  mines  ?  What  is  said  of  the  American  popu- 
lation ?  What  two  classes  of  Indians  inhabit  the  country,  and  what  is  said  of  them  ? 
What  State  north  of  Arizona  ?  What  Territory  east  of  Nevada  ?  What  is  said  of 
their  iurface  ?    Of  the  mines  in  Kevada  ?    In  Utah  ? 


Wahsatch  sulphur  abounds,  and  some  of 
the   numerous    hot   springs   are    said    to 
be  more  valuable,   medicinally,   than   the 
^E^^^^Ej^a^^^^Pj  famous  mineral  waters  of  the  Pyrenees. 

There  are  many  lakes  and  streams  with 
no  outlet  from  this  elevated  plain  ;  among 
them  the  Humboldt  River  in  Nevada,  and 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  in  the  northern  part 
of  Utah.  On  the  shore  of  this  lake  stands 
the  remarkable  Salt  Lake  City,  inhabited 
bj^^  community  of  Mormons,  gathered 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe,  and  presided  over  by  their  leader 
and  prophet,  Brigham  Young.  They  set- 
tled in  this  region  in  order  to  be  isolated, 
as  some  of  their  laws  and  customs  are 
contrary  to  the  prevailing  ideas  of  Chris- 
tian communities,  and  conflict  with  the 
govornmont  of  the  United  States,  but  the 
Pacific  railroad  brings  them  into  the  high- 
way of  travel.  The  Mormons  are  an  in- 
dustrious people,  and  by  careful  labor  and 
irrigation  have  succeeded  in  transforming  the  desert  about  their  city 
into  fruitful  fields.  The  great  difficulty  of  transportation  hitherto 
has  obliged  them  also  to  manufacture  their  own  leather,  woollen 
fabrics,  implements,  and  furniture.  The  most  conspicuous  building 
is  the  great  Tabernacle,  or  house  of  worship. 

The  "  Root-diggers  "  of  the  Nevada  deserts  are  the  most  degraded 
of  the  Indian  tribes,  living  upon  roots,  like  the  Hottentots  of  Africa, 
and  often  finding  it  more  difficult  to  obtain  water  than  food. 

Colorado,  east  of  Utah  and  north  of  New  Mexico,  is  crossed  by  the 
main  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  includes  the  sources  of  the 
Platite,  Arkansas,  Rio  Grande,  and  Colorado  Rivers.  Pike's  Peak, 
famous  in  the  history  of  gold  digging,  rises  bare  and  rugged  from 
the  dense  pine  forests  at  its  base,  though  there  are  beds  of  grass 
between  the  rocks,  and  patches  of  yellow  and  purple  flowers  even  up 
to  the  snow  which  rests  perpetually  in  the  gorges  near  the  top.  This 
summit  commands  one  of  the  grandest  views  on  the  continent,  ex- 
tending a  hundred  miles  in  all  directions.  On  the  east  a  vast  plain 
stretches  like  an  ocean  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  while  on  the 
west  mountains  are  piled  up  in  endless  variety  and  confusion.  West 
of  this  l^nonutain  is  the  most  southern  of  three  enclosures  known  as 
North,  Middle,  and  South  Parks.  These  beautiful  plains  are  tree- 
less, but  covered  with  a  rich  profusion  of  grasses  and  flowers,  and 
completely  surrounded  by  rugged  and  picturesque  mountains. 

Denver,  the  metropolis  of  Colorado,  is  a  well-built  city,  and  an 
important  railroad  centre.  A  road  one  hundred  and  five  miles  long 
connects  it  with  the  LTnion  Pacific  road  at  Cheyenne. 

Wyoming,  Idaho,  and  Montana  are  also  crossed  by  broad 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  extend  over  the  vast  tract 
about  the  head-waters  of  the  Missouri,  Yellowstone,  and  Columbia 
Rivers,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  waterfalls,  high,  rugged  mountain 
passesi  extinct  craters,  hot  springs,  and  geysers.  The  great  geyser 
of  Madison  Valley  discharges  every  three  hours  an  immense  volume 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  hot  springs?  Lakes?  Describe  Salt  Lake  City 
and  its  people.  What  is  the  Tabernacle  ?  What  is  aaid  of  the  Root-diggers  ?  How 
is  Colorado  situated  ?  What  is  said  of  its  surface  ?  Describe  Pike's  Peak.  What  is 
said  of  the  view  from  its  summit  ?  What  four  great  rivers  rise  in  the  neighborhood  ? 
What  three  parks  west  of  Pike's  Peak?  Describe  them.  What  is  .said  of  Denver? 
What  other  Territories  are  crossed  by  the  Rocky  Mountains  ?  What  rivers  rise  here  ? 
Describe  the  mountain-region.     The  great  geyser. 


80 


OUR  WORLD. 


northwest  through  Idaho,  forming  part  of  the  western  boundary  ;  and 
Clark's  Fork  flows  from  Montana  across  the  northern  part  of  Idaho. 
West  of  the  mountain  range  spread  the  dry  plains  of  the  interior, 
with  their  barren  ridges  and  scanty  vegetation.  The  yucca,  the  cac- 
tus, and  the  mesquit  of  the  Southern  section  are  replaced  by  pines, 
firs,  and  other  cone-bearing  trees,  which  prevail  throughout  all  the 
Northern  country,  both  in  the  forests  of  the  fertile  valleys  and  sparse- 
ly scattered  over  sterile  plains  and  bare  hills. 


of  sparkling  water  to  a  height  of  over  two  hundred  feet.  Deep 
canons  have  been  worn  here,  and  singular,  flat-topped  peaks,  to 
which  the  name  of  "  buttes "  has  been  given,  rise  abruptly  from 
the  plain. 

Much  of  this  region  is  still  unsettled,  and  the  district  about  the 
northern  tributaries  of  the  Platte  is  inhabited  by  the  Pawnee  Indians. 


Pawnee  Indians. 

Fort  Laramie,  one  of  the  oldest  land-marks  of  the  Western  plains, 
is  in  the  eastern  part  of  Wyoming. 

The  Missouri  River  flows  northward  for  some  distance,  and  forming 
the  Great  Falls  as  it  turns  from  the  mountains,  continues  eastward 
through  Montana. 

Snake  River,  formerly  called  the  Lewis  Pork  of  the  Columbia,  flows 

Questions.  —  What  are  bnttes  ?  What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  ?  Of  Missouri 
Eiver  ?    Snake  River  ? 


"Washington  Territory  and  Oregon.  —  The  barren  plains,  with 
their  scanty  vegetation,  occupy  all  the  eastern  portion  of  Washington 
Territory  and  Oregon.  Farther  west  the  Cascade  Mountains,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  cross  the  country  from  north  to  south, 
dividing  the  sterile  plains  of  the  east  from  the  delightful  valleys  of 
the  west,  with  their  great  beauty  and  luxuriance  of  vegetation.  No- 
where is  there  a  greater  contrast  in  nature  than  upon  the  two  slopes  of 
this  mountain-chain.  On  the  east  one  may  travel  whole  days  without 
seeing  a  tree  ;  on  the  west  one  is  never  out  of  sight  of  dense  forests, 
where  the  trees,  chiefly  Douglas  spruces,  Oregon  cedars,  pines,  and 
other  cone-bearers,  attain  a  size  and  beauty  elsewhere  unknown. 

The  lofty  summits  of  Mount  Baker,  Mount  Hood,  Mount  St.  Helens, 
Mount  Jefterson,  and  Mount  Adams,  are  covered  with  perpetual 
snow,  though  in  the  valleys  below  the  climate  is  mild  and  the  ice 
rarely  forms  more  than  two  inches  thick.  Many  of  these  peaks  are 
extinct  volcanoes. 

The  Columbia  River,  after  breaking  through  the  mountains,  flows 
westward  into  the  Pacific,  forming  a  part  of  the  boundary  between 
Oregon  and  Washington  Territory.  Among  the  natural  curiosities 
are  the  dalles,  or  rapids  in  the  gorge,  eight  hundred  feet  deep,  where 
the  Columbia  forces  its  way  through  the  Cascade  Mountains ;  the 
Falls  of  the  Columbia  farther  down  the  stream  ;  the  Falls  of  the 
Willamette  ;    and  numerous  hot  springs. 

The  population  of  this  region  is  small,  and  collected  near  the 
Pacific  coast  and  the  Columbia  River ;  but  the  great  industrial  ad- 
vantages will  be  rapidly  developed. 

Questions.  —  What  i.s  the  characteristic  vegetation  of  the  northern  section  of  the 
plateau  ?  What  Territory  borders  on  Britisli  America  and  the  Pacific  ?  What  State 
south  of  Washington  ?  What  portions  of  Oregon  and  Wasliington  are  occupied  by 
the  barren  plains  ?  Where  are  the  Cascade  Mountains  ?  Of  what  mountains  is  the 
Cascade  chain  a  continuation  ?  What  is  the  chaiucter  of  the  country  west  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains  ?  What  are  some  of  the  principal  snow-covered  peaks  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Columbia  River  ?  Of  the  natural  curiosities  1  Of  the  population  and  ad- 
vantages of  the  Territory  t 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


81 


The  Valley  of  the  Willamette  in  Oregon  is  a  fine  agricultural 
region,  and  the  forests  supply  good  timber  ;  but  with  its  abundant 
water-power  Oregon  possesses  peculiar  advantages  for  becoming  a 
great  manufacturing  State. 

Salem,  the  capital,  already  contains  large  woollen  mills.  Portland, 
the  principal  port,  is  on  the  Willamette,  a  few  miles  from  its  mouth. 

The  Puget  Sound  region  gives  to  Washington  Territory  uncommon 
facilities  for  trade.  The  harbors  are  good,  and  large  vessels  come  up 
the  Sound  to  within  two  miles  of  the  city  of  Olympia,  at  its  head. 

The  surrounding  country  is  covered  with  dense  forests  of  magnifi- 
cent evergreens,  scarcely  inferior  in  size  to  the  giant  trees  of  Cali- 
fornia. These  forests  afford  inexhaustible  supplies  of  lumber,  easily 
obtained  and  exported  ;  already  there  is  an  extensive  lumber-trade, 
and  large  steam  saw-mills  are  at  work  in  these  forest  wilds. 


Pish,  especially  salmon,  and  oysters  have  also  become  important 
exports  from  the  Sound. 

California,  occupying  the  whole  extent  of  coast  line  between 
Oregon  and  Mexico,  is  the  oldest  and  most  thickly  settled  of  the 
Western  States,  and  the  commercial  outlet  of  the  plateau  region, 
already  in  communication  with  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  being  regarded  an  almost  impassable  bar- 
rier on  the  east,  the  tide  of  population  which  poured  into  California 
from  the  older  States  and  from  foreign  countries  during  the  gold  ex- 
citement came  mainly  by  way  of  San  Francisco.  The  gold-digging 
still  goes  on  in  various  localities,  but  the  partially  exhausted  mines 
are  abandoned  to  some  extent  for  richer  mining  regions  in  the  newer 
States  or  Territories,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  the  more  ron-nlar  occupations  of  agriculture  and  trade.     We 


Gold  mines  are  worked  near  the  Columbia  in  the  southeastern  part  ,  hear  no  longer  of  immense  lumps  of  pure  gold,  or  of  fortunes  dug 


of  Washington. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  valley  of  the  Willamette  ?  What  and  where  are 
tlie  chief  towns  of  Oregon  ?  AVhat  is  said  of  Puget  Sound  ?  Of  the  commercial  ad- 
vantages of  Washington  ?  Of  the  country  around  the  Sound  ?  What  is  said  of  lum- 
bering! 


out  of  the  earth  in  a  day,  but  of  regions  of  luxuriant  vegetation, 
where  fruits  and  flowers  attain  a  wonderful  size,  crops  yield  a  hun- 
dred-fold, and  huge  trees  rise  to  a  height  of  over  three  hundred  feet. 

Questions.—  What  other  exports  ?    What  is  the  position  and  condition  of  Cali- 
fornia ?     What  is  said  of  the  occupations  of  tlie  inhabitants  ?     Of  the  vegetation  ? 


82 


OUR  WORLD. 


and  with  such  a  circumfcreDce  that  horsemen  may  easily  ride  within 
a  hollow  trunk. 


The  Sierra  Nevada,  whose  eastern  sKipe  is  so  barren,  descends 
westward  into  valleys  of  the  greatest  beauty.  Through  the  long 
valley  enclosed  between  the  Sierra  and  the  Coast  Range  flow  the 
Sacramento  from  the  north  and  the  San  Joaquin  from  the  south,  both 


?aUa  oftbe  Yosemtte. 


emptying  together  into  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  This  entire  val- 
ley, with  its  mild  climate,  rich  soil,  abundant  water,  and  grass 
pastures,  is  unsurpassed  as  an  agricultural  country.  Among  the 
many  wild  or  picturesque  spots  in  this  whole  Western  country,  none 
has  been  so  much  admired  as  the  famous  Yoseraite  Valley,  which 
presents  a  scene  of  unsurpassed  grandeur,  witli  its  precipitous  walls, 
its  gleaming  cascades,  and  its  grove  of  pines,  centuries  old,  beside 
whose  gigantic  height  men  seem  as  pygmies. 

In  California  the  year  is  marked  by  a  dry  and  a  rainy  season ;  and 
during  the  latter  part  of  summer  the  cultivated  valleys  show  no  sign 
of  verdure  except  in  the  orchards,  where  the  trees,  with  their  roots 
below  the  parched  soil,  are  loaded  with  ripening  fruits.  When  the 
autumn  rains  begin,  hills  and  valleys  are  clothed  with  gieen,  and 
large  crops  of  grass  and  grain  are  produced. 

Beside  grain,  fruit-trees,  etc.,  grapes  are  now  largely  cultivated  in 
California,  and  light  wines,  similar  to  those  of  Ohio,  are  exported  to 
all  parts  of  the  country.  Since  transportation  by  railroad  is  now  so 
rapid,  California  grapes,  pears,  and  other  fruits  are  brought  to  the 
Eastern  markets. 

Stock-raising  is  an  important  occupation  here,  as  in  all  the  Western 
plains,  where  the  grass  furnishes  food  for  cattle  through  the  year. 

Manufactures  have  become  more  varied  and  extensive  than  in  many 
States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

In  addition  to  the  gold  still  exported,  quicksilver  is  obtained  in 
considerable  quantities. 

Cities.  —  San  Francisco,  the  great  Pacific  port,  has  a  fine  situation 
on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  with  a  spacious  harbor.  The  wide  streets, 
fine  public  edifices,  churches,  halls,  and  theatres  may  be  favorably 
compared  with  those  of  the  Eastern  cities,  while  much  that  is  strange 
and  foreign  strikes  the  eye.  Here  are  seen  the  lithe  Mexican,  with 
his  sharp-crowned  hat ;  the  bearded,  sunbrowned  miner ;  and  thou- 
sands of  Chinese  with  their  bland,  smooth  faces,  oblique  eyes,  and  long 
braids  of  hair  hanging  down  behind.  The  latter  occupy  a  quarto-  by 
themselves,  eating  with  chop-sticks,  and  keeping  up  other  national 
customs.  They  are  employed  as  cooks,  waiters,  porters,  etc.,  and 
make  excellent  servants. 

Stockton  is  an  important  station  on  the  Pacific  Railroad,  and  from 
this  point  excursions  are  made  to  the  Yosemite  Falls  and  the  groves 
in  the  Valley  of  the  San  Joaquin.  . 

Sacramento,  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  is  the  capital,  and  Nevada 
City,  Grass  Vdlley,  Smartsville,  and  Placerville  are  important  as 
raining  stations. 

San  Diego,  in  the  south,  is  the  terminus  of  the  wagon-routes 
through  Texas,  and  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  California  coast  after 
that  of  San  Francisco. 

The  southern  part  of  the  State  is  little  settled  and  still  inhabited 
by  Indians,  some  of  whom  are  the  degraded  Root-diggers.  There 
are  several  old  Spanish  towns  on  the  coast. 

The  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  connecting  with  other  roads  from  the 
Eastern  cities,  begins  at  Omaha,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Missouri 
River,  continues  westward  to  Cheyenne,  and  thence  over  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  through  the  canons  in  the  Wahsatch  chain  to  Og- 
den,  near  Salt  Lake.  Here  it  connects  with  the  Central  Pacific 
road,  which  runs  westward  across  the  desolate  plateau,  up  the  steep 

Questions.  —  What  mountains  cross  the  State  ?  What  is  tlie  character  of  the 
cointry  ea.st  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  ?  West  of  this  range  ?  What  rivei-s  flow  through 
the  long  valley  ?  Describe  the  region  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Range  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Yosemite  Vallej'  ?  Of  the  seasons  and  productions  of  California  ? 
Wliat  is  further  said  of  the  occupations  of  the  people  ?  Of  metals  ?  What  of  San 
Francisco  and  its  people  ?  Of  other  towns  ?  What  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
State  ?    What  is  the  route  of  the  Pacific  Raiboad  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


83 


ascents,  through  the  dark  tunnels  and  deep  canons  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  and  across-  tlie  Sacramento  Valley  and  Coast  Range  to  San 
Francisco.  Thus  an  unbroken  line  of  communication  is  formed 
across  the  entire  continent,  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

Along  the  uninhabited  heights  of  the  Sierra  immense  sheds  have 
been  built  over  the  road  at  intervals  to  prevent  the  blocking  of  the 
track  by  heavy  drifts  of  snow. 

There  is  another  line  running  from  St.  Louis  to  Denver  nearly  par- 
allel with  the  one  just  described,  and  connecting  with  it  at  Cheyenne. 
A  road  crossing  the  country  farther  north  is  in  process  of  construc- 
tion, and  still  another  is  in  contemplation  through  the  southern  part 
of  the  plateau. 

ALASKA. 

This  Territory,  which  forms  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  and  has  an  area  ten  times  as  large  as  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  formerly  belonged  to  the  Russians,  but  has  been  pur- 
chased by  the  United  States. 

As  it  lies  chiefly  in  the  frigid  zone  it  is  not  valuable  for  agricultural 
purposes.  The  climate,  however,  like  that  of  the  Pacific  coast  gen- 
erally, is  milder  than  in  the  same  latitudes  on  the  Atlantic  ;  and  Alaska 
is  far  less  snowy  and  desolate  than  Greenland.  The  trees  are  larger 
and  more  numerous,  the  forests  of  some  localities  supplying  lupiber 
for  shipbuilding ;  and,  after  the  long  winter,  vegetation  springg-iip 
rapidly  in  the  more  sheltered  valleys,  — grass,  shrubs,  and  wild-flowers 
appearing  almost  under  the  snow. 

The  mineral  products  are  said  to  be  important ;  but  the  chief  wealth 
of  the  country  is  in  its  furs  and  fisheries. 

The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Indians,  whose  habitations  are  usually 
half  under  ground.  A  number  of  Russians  still  remain,  who  had 
made  their  way  from  Kamtschatka  across  Behring  Strait  in  search  of 
furs. 

Scattered  over  the  Territory  are  large  wooden  forts,  or  fur  stations, 
like  those  of  British  America,  where  stores  of  blankets,  beads,  pow- 
der, and  shot  arc  kept  to  exchange  with  the  Indians,  or  white  hunters 
and  trappers  for  furs.  One  of  the  most  important  is  Fort  Yukon,  on 
Yukon  River,  which,  with  its  tributaries,  forms  the  largest  water- 
course of  the  country. 

Questions.  —  What  other  railroads  are  in  process  of  construction  ?  Where  is 
Alaska,  and  to  whom  does  it  belong?  What  is  said  of  its  climate  and  vegetation? 
What  constitute  its  chief  wealth  ?     What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  ?     Of  the  forts  ? 


Sitka,  the  principal  settlement,  is  on  one  of  the  islands  along  the 
southern  part  of  the  coast. 

The  Aleutian  Islands,  off  the  extremity  of  the  narrow  peninsula 
formerly  known  as  Alaska,  are  also  included  in  the  Territory. 

SUMMARY. 

The  great  Western  Plateau  includes  all  the  States  and  Territories 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the  east,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  Cascade  Range,  on  the  west.  Utah,  crossed  from  north  to  south 
y  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  and  containing  Great  Salt  Lake  and 
e  Mormon  settlements,  occupies  the  centre  of  the  plateau. 
Throughout  the  mountain  ranges  the  country  is  wild  and  pic- 
iwiiresque,  with  snowy  peaks,  precipices,  rugged  passes,  caiions, 
\\tinct  volcanoes,  geysers,  hot  and  sulphur  springs,  and  natural 
parks  enclosed  by  mountains.  The  chief  geysers  are  in  Wyoming, 
near  the  head-waters  of  the  Y'^ellowstone  River.  The  largest  parks 
are  in  Colorado,  near  Pike's  Peak,  the  most  eastern  part  of  the 
range.  The  highest  summits  are  in  the  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada 
Range,  some  of  which  are  Mount  Baker,  Mount  St.  Helens,  Mount 
Hood,  and  Mount  Shasta.  The  plateau  is  chiefly  dry  and  barren, 
but  rich  in  mineral  resources.  Throughout  the  southern  portion  the 
scanty  vegetation  is  similar  to  that  of  Texas,  consisting  of  cacti, 
aloes,  mesquit-trees,  and  Mexican  sage-bushes.  In  the  north  are 
some  evergreens  and  grass  larras.  West  of  Sierra  Nevada  are  val- 
leys of  great  beauty  and  fertility,  and  forests  of  gigantic  trees. 

The  vast  territory  of  Alaska  is  still  occupied  chiefly  by  Indians. 
Its  furs  and  fisheries  are  important.  Its  climate  is  milder  than  that 
of  Greenland  in  the  same  latitude,  and  its  forests  furnish  timber  for 
ship-building. 

MAP  STUDY. 

y^  [See  Map  of  the  United  States.] 

What  two  Territories  north  of  Mexico?  What  two  Territories  and  State  im- 
mediately north  and  northwest  of  these  ?  What  Territory  north  of  Colorado  ? 
What  three  west  of  Dakota,  bordering  on  British  America  ?  'VSTiat  Territory 
and  States'ljorder  on  the  Pacific  ?  Which  Territories  have  nearly  the  form  of  a 
«juare  or  parallelogram  ?— ,  Wlych  are^  the  most  irregular  in  form  ?  What  State 
forms  along  curve  on  the  Pacific  coast?  What  Territory  is  in  the  centre  of  the 
plateau  ?  What  meufltain  range  forms  the  eastern  border  of  the  plateau  ?  What 
two  names  are  given  to  the  range  on  the  western  border  ?  What  ridge  crosses 
Utah  ?     Wliat  ridges^,rfoss~%vada  ? 

Tlie  Rocky  MouijftxinjjhainXuns  north  through  New  M o  and  C o,  then 

turns  northwest  through  W g,  and  continues  between  I oandM a  into 

B h  A — i — aJ  It  attains  its  mbst  eastern  and  loftiest  points  in  C o,  where 

and  the  Three  Parks.     Tlie  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Range 
a  and  N a,  and  through  O n  and  W n.     Its  high- 
est peaks  are  ?  /  The  Coast  Range  runs  near  the  Pacific  coast. 

What  Sound  in  Washing'on  Territory  ?  What  are  the  two  most  western  capes 
on  tlie  Pacific  ?     What  bay  in  California  ?     What  lake  in  Utah  ? 

'The  sources  of  the  M i,  Y e,  and  of  the  forks  of  the  C a  Rivers 

are  all  found  in  the  mountain-knot  on  the  borders  of  M a,  I o  and  W g. 

In  what  direction  does  the  Missouri  flow  ?  Of  what  river  is  the  Yellowstone  a 
branch  ?  Where  does  the  Columbia  form  a  boundary  ?  Through  what  moun- 
tain range  does  it  break  ?  What  rivers  have  their  sources  in  the  vicinity  of 
Pike's  Peak  ?  Through  what  Territories  do  the  forks  of  the  Platte  River  flow  ? 
Where  is  the  upper  course  of  the  Arkansas  ?  Of  the  Rio  Grande  ?  What  Ls 
the  course  of  the  Colorado  ?  Of  the  Gila  ?  Where  is  Humboldt  River  ?  Into 
what  does  it  flow  ?  What  two  rivers  drain  the  California  Valley  ?  What  im- 
portant river  of  Oregon  flows  north  into  the  Columbia  ? 

What  are  the  chief  cities  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  where  situated  ? 


are  Pike's  Peak 
runs  between  C 

I  / 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  chief  settlement  ?     What  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  ? 


84 


OUR  WORLD. 


Where  is  Salt  Lake  City  ?     What  are  the  chief  cities  of  Oregon  and  California, 
and  where  situated  ? 

What  are  the  capitals  of  these  Western  States  and  Territories  ? 

What  are  the  principal  forts  of  the  Western  region,  and  where  situated? 


Name  all  the  States  and  Territories  wholly  or  partly  included  in  the  great 
plateau  ?  Which  are  in  the  southern  portion  ?  The  middle  portion  ?  Which 
border  on  British  America  ?  Which  on  the  Pacific  ?  What  territory  borders  on 
the  Pacific  and  Arctic  Oceans  ?     What  river  crosses  it  ?     Where  does  it  empty  ? 


MEXICO,    CENTRAL   AMERICA,    AND    THE    WEST   INDIES. 


MEXICO. 

History.  —  After  the  discovery  of  the  Western  World  the 
Spaniards  took  possession  of  some  of  the  West  India  islands  before 
the  English  and  French  explored  the  Atlantic  shore.  About  a  cen- 
tury before  the  settlement  of  Jamestown  and  Plymouth  a  little  band 
of  Spaniards  from  these  islands  landed  on  the  Mexican  coast,  near 
the  spot  where  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz  now  stands,  — not  as  merchants 
or  pilgrims,  but  as  rude  adventurers,  soldiers  by  profession,  who  came, 
sword  in  hand,  to  seize  upon  gold,  silver,  and  land. 

Here  they  found  natives  resembling  those  of  the  islands  ;  ignorant, 
half  naked,  gentle  in  disposition,  and  with  less  strength  and  endur- 
ance than  the  Indians  of  .the  more  northern  parts  of  the  continent. 
Never  having  seen 'men  on  horseback,  these  Indians  regarded  the 
armed  and  mounted  warriors  with  timid  curiosity  and  superstition, 
and  were  glad  to  propitiate  them  by  such  gifts  as  they  had  to  offer. 

The  Spaniards,  eager  for  the  gold  and  silver  they  had  expected  to 
find  in  abundance,  questioned  the  Indians  about  the  country,  and 
hearing  vague  rumors  of  a  great  city  and  a  powerful  king  far  inland, 
they  determined  to  see  the  city  for  themselves. 

Hernando  Cortez,  their  leader,  a  fearless,  unscrupulous  man,  ac- 
customed to  carry  out  his  will  by  force  or  by  stratagem,  was  unmoved 
by  the  dissuasions  of  the  natives,  who  threatened  him  with  the  king's 
displeasure.  Leaving  his  ships  and  all  means  of  escape  behiniMiim, 
he,  with  his  little  band,  began  a  march  through  an  unknown  country, 
where  thousands  of  the  natives  might  surround  him  at  any  moment. 

Difficulties  beset  the  explorers  at  every  step,  —  the  country  became 
broken  and  mountainous  as  they  left  the  coast,  the  road  led  them 
higher  and  higher  over  steep  ascents  and  gloomy  gorges,  and  the 
difierent  tribes  on  their  way  often  received  them  with  open  disfavor, 
or  endeavored  to  destroy  them  by  treachery.  But  everywhere  they 
heafd  of  Montezuma,  the  great  king,  who  held  all  the  neighboring 
tribes  as  vassals. 

Finally  they  reached  the  last  mountain-pass,  and  beheld  at  their  feet 
a  charming  valley  or  plain,  completely  surrounded  by  rugged  moun- 
tains, and  covered  with  grass,  groves  of  palms,  and  fruit-trees.  Upon 
an  island,  which  rose  out  of  a  beautiful  lake,  stood  a  magnificent 
city,  —  magnificent  even  to  men  who  had  seen  the  cities  of  Granada, 
—  with  massive  walls,  immense  temples,  palaces  inlaid  with  gold  and 
silver,  boats,  gliding  among  the  gardens  and  orange  groves,  and  witt 
three  long  causeways  connecting  the  city  with  the  outer  shores  of  the 
lake.  Here  the  Spaniards  were  received  with  courtesy  and  dignity 
by  the  king  Montezuma,  before  whom  the  inhabitants  prostrated 
themselves  with  the  greatest  reverence  and  devotion  ;  and  here  in 
the  midst  of  the  American  wilderness,  surrounded  by  savages,  the 
adventurers  found  an  isolated  people  with  a  kiiowledge  of  architec- 
ture, of  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  iron,  and  silver,  and  of  various  other 


Questions.  —  When  and  by  whom  was  Mexico  settled  ?  What  is  said  of  the  na- 
tives ?  Who  was  the  leader  of  the  Spaniards  ?  What  difficult  expedition  did  he 
undertake  ?  Describe  the  march.  What  is  said  of  the  City  of  Mexico  and  itf  in- 
habitants ? 


arts  of  civilized  life,  and  who  expressed  their  ideas  by  means  of  a  kind 
of  picture-writing.  Yet,  with  all  this,  there  was  an  idolatrous  religion, 
the  offering  of  sacrifices,  — eyen  human  sacrifices,  — and  the  "barbaric 
splendor"  that  provqg  a  partial  civilization.  But  the  wonder  was 
liow  they  had  advanced  so  far ;  and  this  early  civilization,  found  in 
Mexico  and  in  another  isolated  region  of  South  America,  has  caused 
a  great  deal  of  speculation  and  controversy  among  historians. . 

Not  less  wonderful  than  their  condition  is  the  fact  of  the  conquest 
of  this  people  by  a  mere  handful  of  strangers  on  their  own  ground, 
in  their  own  homes,  where  it  might  be  supposed  the  Spaniards  could 
have  been  easily  destroyed.  The  whole  story  of  this  conquest  is  as 
romantic  as  any  fiction,  and  Montezuma's  imprisonment  and  death  in 
his  own  capital  are  among  the  saddest  events  of  early  American 
history. 

The  Spaniards,  under  Cortez,  firmly  established  themselves  in 
Mexico,  and  after  several  years  of  warfare  obtained  possession  of 
the  whole  country. 

Instead  of  settling  on  the  coast  and  gradually  exploring  inland,  as 
the  English  colonists  did,  the  Spaniards,  as  we  have  seen,  penetrated 
at  once  into  the  heart  of  the  country  ;  and  the  natives,  instead  of 
retreating  before  the  invaders,  as  in  our  own  country,  gradually 
intermarried  with  the  conquerors,  and  thus  formed  the  Mexican 
people. 

Though  the  Mexicans  long  ago  became  independent  of  Spain,  they 
have  retained  the  Spanish  language,  customs,  dress,  and,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  Spanish  style  of  architecture,  with  only  such  variations 
as  the  peculiarities  of  climate  and  country  required. 

The  Mexican  government  is  republican,  but  by  no  means  so  well 
ordered  as  that  of  the  United  States,  and  abuses,  discontents,  and 
rebellions  are  frequent. 

The  national  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic. 

Surface  of  the  country.  —  South  of  the  United  States  the  Coast 
Range  is  lost  in  the  peninsula  of  California,  and  the  great  plateau 
between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  narrows  grad- 
ually toward  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  including  the  whole  of  Mexico, 
with  the  exception  of  the  narrow  strips  of  low,  unhealthy  coast  land 
along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  mountain  chains  traversing  the  plateau  are  called  the  Mexican 
Cordilleras  or  chains,  and  the  main  range  takes  the  name  of  Sierra 
Madro. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  country  is  not  unlike  parts  of  Texas 
and  California.  Here  again  are  the  wild,  gloomy  mountain  regions, 
with  low,  rocky  ridges,  or  detached  peaks,  jagged  and  picturesque ; 
dry,  parched  plains,  without  water  or  vegetation  ;  extensive  grass 
pastures,  with  here  and  there  a  winding  line  of  dark  green,  marking 
the  wooded  banks  of  a  river-course  ;  and  herds  of  cattle  and  wild 

horses.     There  is  an  occasional  rancho,  or  stock-farm,  with  its  house 

• 

Questions.  —  What  of  their  conquest  ?  What  is  the  ori^n  of  the  Mexican  people  ? 
What  of  their  customs,  government,  and  religion  ?  What  is  said  of  the  position  and 
fonn  of  the  country  ?  What  names  are  given  to  the  mountains  ?  Describe  the  general 
appearance  of  the  country  with  its  varieties  of  scenery.     What  is  a  raneho  t 


MEXICO. 


85 


of  adobe,  or  sun-dried 
bricks,  its  large  well  for 
the  cattle,  and  its  corral, 
or  enclosure,  big  enough 
to  contain  thousands  of 
animals. 

Groves  of  Cottonwood, 
fruit-trees,  and  lands  under 
cultivation  are  also  to  be 
found  in  the  fertile  valleys 
of  the  iierras  calienles,  or 
hot  regions. 

Tiie  thorny  vegetation 
found  in  all  the  warm  coun- 
tries of  America  is  espe- 
cially characteristic  of  the 
Mexican  plateau.  The 
yucca,  or  Spanish  bayonet, 
attains  the  dimensions  of 
a  tree  ;  the  agave,  or 
American  aloe,  common 
everywhere,  is  invaluable 
to  the  native  tribes,  sup- 
plying material  for  build- 
ing, fibres  for  making  nets 
and  cordage,  food  from 
its  roots,  a  favorite  fer- 
mented drink  from  its 
juice,  and  various  other  wants. 

Of  many  species  of  cactus  the  prickly  pear  is  one  of  the  most 
common  and  important,  and  has  been  taken  as  a  national  emblem, 
being  represented  on  the  Mexican  dollar,  as  the  eagle  is  on  that  of 
the  United  States. 

Palms,  orange-trees,  mahogany,  dye  woods,  and  other  exclusively 
tropical  productions  begin  to  appear  in  the  tierras  calienles  of  the  low 
coast. 

Such  vegetation  is  only  seen  in  occasional  valleys  where  there  is 
moisture  as  well  as  heat,  and  around  the  cities  where  irrigation  keeps 
the  verdure  through  the  dry  season  ;  but  the  droughts,  the  eleva- 
tion, and  the  absence  of  foliage  in  the  thorny  plants  give  a  general 
air  of  barrenness  to  the  country. 

Metals.  —  The  silver  mines  of  Mexico  have  been  famous  from  the 
earliest  knowledge  of  the  country  as  the  richest  in  the  world. 

Gold  and  copper  are  also  found,  and  here  are  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant quicksilver  mines. 

Animals.  —  Cattle,  wild  horses,  and  herds  of  antelopes  roam  over 
the  grass  lands,  and  wild  turkeys  and  quails  abound  as  in  our  prairie 
States.  Beside  the  prairie  dogs,  moles,  rats,  rabbits,  and  other  bur- 
rowing animals,  these  plains  are  infested  with  centipedes,  often  ten 
inches  long ;  scorpions,  with  their  poisonous  sting ;  and  tarantulas, 
or  venomous  spiders,  which  hide  in  burrows  covered  by  trap- 
doors. Lizards  of  various  hues  glide  over  the  plains  with  incredible 
swiftness  ;  and  the  rattlesnake  abounds  everywhere  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific,  on  grass  plains,  deserts,  and  rocky 
ledges. 

Productions.  —  In  the  low,  warm  coast  regions  sugar-cane,  cotton, 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  vegetation?  What  is  said  of  the  uses  of  the 
agave  ?  Of  the  prickly  pear  ?  What  vegetation  in  the  Iierras  calienUi  ?  What  ani- 
mals are  found  on  the  grass  lands  ?  On  the  plains  ?  What  is  the  tarantula  ?  What 
mines  in  Mexico  ?    What  arfe  the  principal  productions  ? 


Gathering  Cocliiiieiil  luMtTts. 

and  indigo  are  cultivated,  and  in  some  parts  coffee,  tropical  fruits, 
vanilla,  and  cacao  are  produced. 

A  peculiar  and  important  export  is  the  cochineal  insect,  which 
makes  a  beautiful  crimson  dye.  The  prickly  pear,  upon  which  the 
insects  live,  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  they  are  brushed  from  the 
leaves  in  great  quantities  and  dried  for  exportation  ;  in  which  state 
they  look  like  tiny  black  balls,  from  which,  when  dropped  into  hot 
water,  the  brilliant  red  color  is  extracted. 

Inhabit£Uits.  —  As  a  people,  the  Mexicans  are  backward  in  educa- 
tion and  in  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  Schools  are  few  and  poor,  and 
the  women,  especially,  are  very  ignorant.  The  methods  of  agricul- 
ture are  simple,  and  the  Mexicans  have  few  manufactures,  that  of 
leather  being  the  most  important.  They  embroider  fine  saddle- 
cloths and  other  trappings,  and  are  expert  in  the  manufacture  of 
gold  lace. 

Many  of  the  people  are,  like  the  Texans,  engaged  in  stock-raising, 
and  hides  are  an  important  export.  Manufactured  goods,  wrought- 
iron,  .and  machinery  are  imported.  The  trade  of  the  interior  is  car- 
ried on  by  means  of  pack-mules,  and  the  arrieros,  or  muleteers, 
have  become  an  important  class. 

The  Mexicans,  like  the  Spaniards,  are  extravagantly  fond  of  dan- 
cing, and  all  classes  delight  in  the  guitar.  Bull  fights  and  cock 
fights  are  the  national  amusements,  as  in  all  the  Spanish  colonies. 

The  women  wear  scarfs  or  mantles  on  their  heads  instead  of  bon- 
nets. The  street  dress  of  a  lady,  especially  for  church,  is  black ; 
but  at  other  times  bright  colors  and  a  profusion  of  jewelry  are  in 
style. 

The  men  wear  short  jackets  of  cloth  or  velvet,  and  pantaloons 
slashed  at  the  sides  and  ornamented  with  rows  of  buttons. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  cochineal  ?  What  of  the  condition  of  the  Mexicans  ? 
Wliat  are  their  manufactures  ?  What  is  said  of  their  exports  and  imports  ?  Of  their 
inland  trade  ?    Their  amusements  ?    What  is  said  of  dress ! 


86 


OUR  WORLD. 


The  common  building  material  is  adobe,  a  composition  of  mud 
or  clay  and  gravel,  or  sometimes  straw.  The  houses  are  usually  of 
one  story  on  account  of  earthquakes,  are  whitewashed  or  colored 
light  pink,  blue,  yellow,  or  green,  and  roofed  with  red  tiles.  In  the 
larger  cities  the  churches  and  principal  residences  are  handsome  and 
substantial ;  but  in  many  places  dilapidated  ruins  remain  as  the  effect 
of  former  earthquakes. 

Cities.  —  Vera  Cruz,  as  old  as  the  conquest  of  the  country  by 
Cortez,  is  the  only  port  of  importance  on  the  Gulf  'coast.  Acapulco 
is  the  chief  port  on  the  Pacific,  and  is  visited  by  vessels  going  to  and 
from  California. 

Mazatlan,  another  port  farther  up  the  Pacific  coast,  is  a  place  of 
several  thousand  inhabitants,  and  contains  handsome,  substantial 
buildings,  with  the  narrow  streets  and  long  colonnades  of  the  old 
•Castilian  cities. 

The  city  of  Mexico  is  charmingly  situated  on  Lake  Tezcuco,  in  the 
midst  of  a  broad  plain  entirely  enclosed  by  lofty  mountains.  The 
city  is  an  immense  square,  with  straight,  woU-paved  streets,  hand- 
some buildings  in  massive  Mexican  style,  a  great  cathedral,  and  a 
plaza,  or  enclosure  for  bull  fights,  large  enough  to  accommodate 
three  thousand  persons.  The  alameda,  or  public  promenade,  found 
in  every  Mexican  city,  is  a  fine  grove  of  large  trees,  intersected  with 
walks  and  carriage-roads.  The  environs  of  the  city  are  exceedingly 
beautiful,  and  from  the  high  tower  of  the  cathedral  there  is  a  charm- 
ing view  of  the  whole  surroimding  plain,  with  its  cultivated  fields ; 
long  avenues  of  shade-trees  leading  to  the  city  ;  aqueducts  over  lofty 
arches  ;  gardens  and  orange-groves  ;  the  lake,  with  its  canoes  and 
Indian  boatmen  ;  and  the  fine  old  convent  of  Guadalaxara  among  the 
ravines  of  the  mountain.  Enclosing  the  whole  is  a  colossal  moun- 
tain range,  rising  in  wild  and  striking  contrast  to  the  plain.  On  one 
side  are  peaks  glittering  with  eternal  snow,  and  on  the  other  volcanic 
vapors  issuing  from  the  crater  of  Popocatapetl,  one  of  the  loftiest 
peaks  on  the  continent. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

Central  America  occupies  the  narrow  southern  extremity  of  North 
America,  between  Mexico  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  includes 
the  five  republics,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salvador,  Nicaragua, 
Costa  Kica,  and  the  English  colony  of  Balize. 

It  is  crossed  by  the  Sierra  Madre  and  other  mountain  ranges,  in- 
terspersed with  numerous  volcanoes.  There  are  high  plains  among 
the  mountains,  and  narrow  strips  of  low  coast  land  along  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  general  character  of  the  country, 
its  surface,  soil,  climate,  and  productions,  resemble  those  of  Mexico. 

The  low,  marshy  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Honduras  is  noted  for  its 
groves  of  mahogany,  which  supply  the  markets  of  the  United  States 
and  Groat  Britain  with  this  valuable  wood.  The  English  obtain  sup- 
plies of  mahogany  from  their  own  little  province  of  Balize.  The  logs 
are  obtained  by  parties  of  lumbermen  who  explore  the  thick  swamp- 
forests,  cut  down  the  finest  trees,  clear  the  trunks  of  branches,  and 
drag  them  through  the  thicket.  The  occupation  is  not  only  very 
laborious,  but  often  dangerous,  for  the  hot  tropical  sun,  the  rank 
vegetation  and  marshy  soil,  make  this  coast  region  very  unhealthy, 
and  at  some  seasons  it  is  certain  death  to  venture  into  the 
forests. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  architecture  ?  What  and  where  are  the  chief  sea- 
ports ?  Describe  the  city  of  Mexico.  Where  is  Central  America  ?  What  does  it 
include  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  country  ?  What  is  said  of  the  coast  of  the 
Bay  of  Honduras  ?    What  and  where  is  Balize  ?    How  is  mahogany  obtained  ? 


Logwood,  fustic,  and  other  dye-woods  are  also  obtained  here. 
Indigo  of  a  superior  quality  is  more  extensively  cultivated  and  ex- 
ported than  from  any  other  country  except  India. 

Among  other  common  exports  are  sarsaparilla,  vanilla,  and  cochi- 
neal, beside  hides  from  the  interior. 

Throughout  the  country  are  massive  ruins  of  the  ancient  archi- 
tecture which  was  found  here,  as  well  as  in  Mexico,  by  the  Sp::::- 
iards.  The  present  inliabitants  are  Mexicans  ;  native  Indians,  usually 
a  degraded  class  of  laborers  ;  and  a  few  Castilians  who  pride  them- 
selves on  their  direct  descent  from  old  Spanish  families.  The  gov- 
ernment, as  in  most  Spanish-American  States,  is  very  badly  man- 
aged, and  revolutions,  conspiracies,  and  civil  wars  are  frequent. 

The  principal  cities  are  San  Salvador,  Guatemala,  and  San 
Leon. 

A  few  years  since,  the  travel  to  California  was  chiefly  by  way  of 
Panama.  At  first  the  journey  across  the  isthmus  was  accomplished 
on  mules,  but  a  railroad  was  soon  made  from  Aspinwall,  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  to  Panama,  on  the  Pacific,  a  distance  of  about  forty 
miles. 

SUMMARY. 

Mexico  is  a  broad  table-land,  which  is  crossed  by  volcanic  moun- 
tain ranges,  and  descends  to  narrow  strips  of  low  coast  land  along 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Sierra  Madre  is  the  chief  range. 

The  vegetation  consists  chiefly  of  cacti,  and  other  thorny,  fleshy 
plants  which  are  common  upon  high,  dry  plains  in  hot  climates. 

Palms,  tropical  fruits,  indigo,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  cabinet  and  dye- 
woods  are  found  in  the  low  lands. 

The  common  animals  are  wild  herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  moles, 
rabbits,  prairie-dogs,  and  other  burrowing  animals,  noxious  insects, 
lizards,  scorpions,  and  rattlesnakes. 

The  mining  products  are  silver,  copper,  gold,  and  quicksilver. 

Trade.  —  The  exports  are  indigo,  cochineal,  sugar-cane,  vanilla, 
mahogany,  and  logwood. 

The  chief  imports  are  manufactured  goods. 

Pack-mule's  are  the  usual  means  of  inland  transportation. 

The  cities  are  Mexico,  the  capital,  on  a  high  plateau  surrounded  by 
mountains  ;  Vera  Cruz,  the  chief  port,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  Aca- 
pulco, the  chief  port  on  the  Pacific. 

The  common  building  material  is  adobe,  a  composition  of  mud  and 
gravel.  The  houses  are  whitewashed,  or  colored  pale  pink,  yellow, 
etc.,  and  roofed  with  red  tiles. 

History.  —  Mexico  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez, 
who  found  here  the  Aztecs,  a  half-civilized  people,  with  some  knowl- 
edge of  manufactures,  architecture,  and  picture-writing.  The  pres- 
ent inhabitants  are  descendants  of  the  Spaniards  and  natives.  They 
are  fond  of  dancing,  guitar-playing,  bull-fights,  cigars,  and  gay  trap- 
pings ;  and  retain,  in  general,  the  language,  dress,  and  customs  of 
the  Spaniards. 

Central  America  is  a  mountainous  country,  resembling  Mexico 
in  vegetation,  products,  and  inhabitants,  and  contains  five  separate 
republics.  Indigo  and  mahogany,  of  the  best  quality,  are  the 
chief  exports.  Balize,  a  part  of  Yucatan,  belongs  to  England, 
and  is  valuable  for  its  mahogany.  Scattered  through  the  country 
are  ruins  of  the  massive  ancient  architecture  found  here  by  the 
Spaniards. 

Questions.  —  Wliat  are  the  exports  ?  What  is  said  of  indigo  ?  Of  ruins  ?  Of 
the  inhabitants  and  government  ?  What  are  the  principal  cities  ?  What  is  said  of 
travel  to  California  ?     Give  the  summary  of  the  account  of  Mexico  and  Central  America. 


THE  WEST  INDIES. 


87 


THE  WEST  INDIES. 

The  numerous  islands  included  under  this  name  lie,  with  few  excep- 
tions, in  the  torrid  zone,  and  extend  in  a  broad  chain  from  off  the 
soutiieastern  coast  of  Florida,  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 
They  are  divided  into  three  groups,  the  Bahamas,  the  Great  Antilles, 
and  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

The  Bahamas  form  a  chain  of  low,  narrow  islands  north  of  Cuba. 
A  thin  soil  covers  the  rocky  surface,  producing  moderate  crops  of 
cotton,  corn,  and  fruits  ;  and  on  the  largest  of  the  islands  some  tim- 
ber is  obtained  for  shipbuilding.  Turk's  Island  and  others  of  the 
group  export  salt  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  sea  water  in  "  pans  " 
or  troughs.  Nassau,  on  one  of  the  smaller  islands,  is  the  capital, 
and  the  chief  trading  port  with  the  United  States  and  England. 

It  was  one  of  the  islands  of  this  group  that  Columbus  discovered 
on  his  first  voyage  across  the  Atlantic.  San  Salvador,  or  Cat  Island, 
has  been  generally  supposed  to  be  the  spot  where  he  landed,  though 
recent  authorities  give  Waiting's  Island,  farther  cast. 

The  Antilles. — ^The  larger  islands,  with  varied  surface,  rich  soil, 
and  abundant  moisture,  are  among  the  most  beautiful  and  productive 
of  tropical  regions.  Earthquakes,  however,  are  frequent ;  thunder- 
storms prevail  at  some  seasons  of  the  year ;  and  violent  hurricanes 
sometimes  devastate  the  country,  tearing  up  trees  and  houses,  and 
engulfing  vessels  in  the  raging  waters,  or  dashing  them  in  frag- 
ments upon  the  rocks. 

Some  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  are  coral  islands,  but  many  of  the 
large  islands  are  of  volcanic  formation,  and  are  surrounded  by  sharp, 
rugged  peaks  of  rock,  uninhabitable  except  by  sea-fowl,  crabs,  and 
turtles.  The  coasts  usually  rise  in  precipitous  bluffs,  especially  on 
the  west ;  but  in  some  places  the  shore  lands  are  low  and  marshy. 

Cuba,  Ilayti,  Jamaica,  and  Porto  Rico,  called  the  Great  Antilles, 
are  all  crossed  from  west  to  east  by  mountain  ridges,  rising  some- 
times to  a  height  of  seven  or  eight  thousand  feet,  and  short  streams 
flow  from  both  slopes  to  the  sea.  These  mountains  contain  copper, 
lead,  silver,  etc.,  though  only  copper  has  been  mined;  and  their 
sides  are  covered  with  magnificent  forests  of  logwood,  fustic,  ma- 
hogany, satinwood,  ebony,  and  the  close-grained  red  cedar,  of  which 
cigar-boxes  are  made.  Interspersed  among  the  mountains  are  grass 
pastures  for  great  numbers  of  cattle,  mules,  sheep,  and  goats  ;  and 
the  rich  lowlands  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  coffee, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  indigo.  All  the  usual  tropical  fruits  abound, 
—  bananas,  pineapples,  oranges,  limes,  and  lemons.  The  wilder 
ravines  are  filled  with  luxuriant  flowering  plants,  and  clusters  of 
palms  rise  above  the  green  mass  of  foliage.  The  royal  palm  is  the 
glory  of  all  tropical  scenery,  and  avenues  of  this  noble  tree  adorn 
the  streets  of  the  cities  and  the  gardens  of  the  wealthy. ' 

The  soil  is  the  best  in  the  world  for  sugar-cane.  Half  the  sugar 
used  is  made  in  these  islands,  and  the  waving  cane  spreads  over  im- 
mense plantations,  interrupted  only  by  clusters  of  fruit-trees  sur- 
rounding the  farm-buildings.  Each  plantation  has  a  sugar-house, 
and  hundreds  of  laborers  are  employed  in  cutting  and  hauling  the 
cane,  making  the  sugar,  and  carrying  great  wagon-loads  of  hogs- 
heads to  the  seaports.  The  juice,  crushed  from  the  canes  by  steam 
or  horse  power,  is  boiled  several  times  in  immense  kettles  until  it  is 
sufficiently  thickened  and  clear  of  impurities.     The  sugar  is  then 


the  molasses  drips   out  beneath, 
ugar,  brought  to  us  in  hogsheads  or 


Questions.  —  Where  are  the  West  Indies  ?  Of  what  groups  do  they  consist  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Bahamas  ?  What  is  the  chief  port  ?  Which  of  tliese  islands  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Antilles  in  general  ?  Of  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Great  Antilles  ?  Of  the  forests !  Lowlands '  What  is  said  of  sugar 
plantations  ?    How  is  sugar  made  ? 


crystallized  in  great  basins,    and 

This  is   the  common  brown 

boxes.     The  crystallized  brown  sugar,  though  apparently  dry,  still 

retains  a  portion  of  the   molasses,  and  is  refined,   or  whitened,   bj' 

various  processes  of  extracting  the  remaining  syrup.     This  refining 

of  the  sugar  is  often  done  in  other  countries. 

Fruits  grotv  to  perfection  in  all  these  islands,  and,  beside  the 
oranges,  pineapples,  and  bananas  that  are  exported  fresh,  many 
others  are  preserved.  The  West  India  sweetmeats  are  known  as 
widely  as  the  sugar  and  cigars,  especially  guava  jelly,  candied  limes, 
and  preserved  ginger.  The  plantain  is  the  chief  article  of  food  among 
the  poorer  classes,  and  one  may  see  a  small  plantation  of  bananas  or 
plantains  surrounding  the  thatched  cabin  of  the  poor  man. 

Tobacco  is  largely  cultivated  and  manufactured  into  cigars,  leaf- 
tobacco,  and  snuff  for  exportation.  Among  the  specialties  are  Ja- 
maica rum,  bay  water  from  St.  Thomas,  and  Curayao  cordial. 

The  imports  of  all  the  islands  are  chiefly  manufactured  goods, 

cottons,  woollens,  hardware,  etc. 

Cuba,  the  largest  of  the  West  Indies,  is  about  790  miles  long,  and 
in  its  broadest  part  120  miles  wide,  including  an  area  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  State  of  New  York.  It  contains  extensive  sugar  estates 
and  large  tobacco  factories  ;  and  exports,  beside  sugar  and  cigars, 
sweetmeats,  dye-stuffs,  cabinet-woods,  hides,  etc. 

Cuba  is  still  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  the  early  Spanish 
settlers,  who  are  generally  planters,  merchants,  or  professional  men. 
There  is  also  a  large  number  of  Spaniards  on  the  island,  who  are 
usually  in  the  employ  of  the  government,  which  seldom  appoints  a 
native  Cuban  to  any  trust.  The  small  shop-keepers  are  also  gener- 
ally Spaniards.  A  bitter  enmity  exists  between  these  Spaniards  and 
the  native  Cubans.  In  1869  a  rebellion  broke  out  which,  although  it 
has  not  met  with  much  success,  has  never  been  wholly  suppressed, 
and  it  has  been  necessary  for  the  Spanish  government  to  keep  a. 
large  standing  army  in  Cuba. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  African  slaves  on  the  island,  for  the 
slave  trade  was  carried  on  in  Cuba  long  after  it  was  given  up  by 
other  civilized  nations.  When  slaves  were  no  longer  imported, 
coolies,  or  Chinese  laborers,  were  brought  over  to  take  their  places, 
and  these  are  found  all  through  the  island. 

Havana,  the  chief  port  of  the  West  Indies,  is  situated  on  the  north- 
ern coast,  and  has  one  of  the  most  beautiful  harbors  in  the  world, 
guarded  at  its  entrance  by  Morro  Castle  and  other  strong  forts.  The 
houses  are  built  in  the  Spanish  style  with  flat  roofs,  and  are  often 
painted  in  bright  gay  colors,  which  give  the  city,  as  seen  from  the 
water,  quite  a  cheerful  look.  The  streets  in  the  oldest  part  of  the 
city  are  very  narrow,  but  in  the  newer  portion  are  fine,  wide  avenues, 
on  which  the  ladies  ride  at  sunset  in  barouches  and  volantes,  which 
last  are  the  vehicles  peculiar  to  the  country.  The  city  contains 
many  fine  churches,  theatres,  and  beautiful  parks.  In  the  Cathedral 
are  laid  the  ashes  of  Christopher  Columbus. 

Matanzas  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
island.  A  few  miles  from  the  city  is  a  remarkable  cave,  quite  as 
attractive  though  not  so  extensive  as  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Ken- 
tucky. The  other  principal  cities  are  Santiago,  Villa  Clara,  and 
Trinidad. 

Hayti,  or  St.  Domingo,  was  colonized  by  the  French  and  Spaniards, 
the  former  occupying  the  western,  and  the  latter  the  eastern  half  of 
the  island. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  fruits?  What  specialties  are  mentioned?  What 
impoits  ?  What  is  said  of  Cuba  ?  Of  its  inhabitants  and  present  condition  ?  Of 
Havana  ?    Of  Matauzas  ?    What  other  cities  ?    What  is  said  of  Hayti  ? 


88 


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OUR  WORLD. 


GEIS^EEAL   EEYIEW    OF   NOETH   AMEEIO A. 


MAP  QUESTIONS. 

Where  is  Baffin  Bay  ?  The  Bay  of  Fundy  ?  Hudson  Bay  ?  Delaware  Bay  ?  Mobile 
Bay  ?  Chesapeake  Bay  ?  Gulf  of  California  ?  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  ?  Pamlico 
Sound  ?  Lake  Pontchartrain  ?  Great  Salt  Lake  ?  Great  Slave  Lake  ?  Great  Bear 
Lake  ?  Lake  Champlain  ?  Lake  Winnipiseogee  ?  Moosehead  Lake  ?  Lake  St. 
Clair  ?  What  are  the  Great  Lakes  ?  Where  is  Cayuga  Lake  ?  Behriug  Strait  ?  Davis 
Strait  ?  Mackinaw  Strait  ?  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  ?  Isthmus  of  Panama  ?  Cape 
Hatteras  ?  Cape  Fear  ?  Capes  Charles  and  Henry  ?  Capes  May  and  Henlopen  ? 
Where  are  the  two  capes  named  Cape  Sable  ? 

What  are  the  political  divisions  of  North  America  ?  Which  is  the  most  northern  of 
the  United  States  ?  The  most  southern  ?  What  States  on  the  Atlantic  ?  On  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  Which  border  on  British  America  ?  On  the  east  bank  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi ?  On  the  west  bank  ?  What  States  border  on  the  Great  Lakes  ?  On  the 
Ohio  !  What  States  and  Territories  on  the  great  Western  Plateau  ?  What  States  and 
Territories  border  on  the  Pacific  ?    Give  the  capital  of  each  State. 

Describe  the  course  of  the  Mississippi  River,  giving  its  source,  its  direction,  and 
where  it  empties  ?  Of  the  Missouri  ?  Red  ?  Arkansas  ?  Rio  Grande  ?  Columbia  ? 
Des  Moines  ?  Wisconsin  ?  Kansas  ?  Wabash  ?  Ohio  ?  St.  Lawrence  ?  Connecti- 
cut ?  Hudson  ?  Mohawk  ?  Where  is  the  Potomac  ?  James  ?  Savannah  ?  Pedee  ? 
St.  John's  ?  Chattahoochee  ?  Mobile  ?  Alabama  ?  Tennessee  ?  Cumberland  ? 
Yazoo  ?     Colorado  ?     Platte  ?     Penobscot  ?     Susquehanna  ?     Delaware  ? 

Where  are  the  White  Mountains  ?  Green  Mountains  ?  Adirondacs  ?  Catskills  ? 
The  Blue  Ridge  ?  AUeghanies  ?  Cumberland  Mountains  ?  These  are  ranges  of  what 
mountain  system  ?  What  States  are  crossed  by  this  mountain  system  ?  What  name 
is  sometimes  applied  to  the  western  mountain  system  ?  What  are  the  names  of  its 
principal  ranges  ?    Where  are  the  Ozark  Mountains  ? 

Seaports.  —  Where  is  New  York  situated  ?  Boston  ?  Baltimore  ?  Charleston  ? 
St.  Augustine  ?  Savannah  ?  Mobile  ?  New  Orleans  ?  Galveston  ?  Portland  ? 
Portsmouth  ?  Newburyport  ?  Gloucester  ?  Provincetown  ?  New  Bedford  ?  New- 
port ?  Providence  ?  New  Haven  ?  Norfolk  ?  Annapolis  ?  Wilmington  ?  Beaufort  ? 
San  Francisco  ?    Olympia  ?    New  London  ? 

RiVEB  AND  Lake  Ports.  —  Where  is  Philadelphia  situated  ?  Cincinnati  ?  Pitts- 
burg ?  Washington  ?  Hartford  ?  Richmond  ?  Leuisville  ?  St.  Louis  ?  St.  Paul  ? 
Bangor  ?  Albany  ?  Omaha  ?  Nashville  ?  West  Point  ?  Natchez  ?  Chicago  ? 
Buffalo  ?    Milwaukee  ?    Detroit  ?    Cleveland  ? 

In  what  State  is  Salem  ?  Augusta  ?  Lowell  ?  Worcester  ?  Burlington  ?  Spring- 
field ?  Concord  ?  Manchester  ?  Montpelier  ?  Lawrence  ?  Conway  ?  Nashua  ? 
Taunton  ?  Rutland  ?  Fall  River  ?  Plymouth  ?  Troy  ?  Harrisburg  ?  Rochester  ? 
Dover  ?  Oswego  ?  Trenton  ?  Newark  ?  Paterson  ?  Wilmington  ?  Ogdensburg  ? 
Princeton  ?  Wheeling  ?  Raleigh  ?  Columbus  ?  Atlanta  ?  Augusta  ?  Jacksonville  ? 
Tallahassee  ?  Huntsville  ?  Montgomery  ?  Selma  ?  Jackson  ?  Vicksburg  ?  Baton 
Rouge  ?  San  Antonio  ?  Little  Rock  ?  St.  Joseph  ?  Hannibal  ?  Memphis  ? 
Frankfort  ?    Paducah  ?    Indianapolis  ?    Madison  ?    Galena  ?    Lansing  ?    Kalamazoo  ? 

What  are  the  chief  settlements  in  Greenland  ?  Where  is  Cape  Farewell  ?  Cape 
Chudleigh  ?  What  country  north  of  the  United  States  ?  What  provinces  are  included 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada  ?  Which  border  upon  the  United  States  1  Which  borders 
upon  the  Great  Lakes  ?  Which  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Lawrence  River  ?  Which 
border  upon  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  ?  Which  upon  the  Atlantic  ?  Which  are 
islands  ?  Which  is  a  peninsula  ?  Give  the  capitals  and  chief  towns  of  each  province. 
Where  is  the  Strait  of  Belleisle  ?    What  is  the  capital  of  Newfoundland  ? 

What  country  sonth  of  the  United  States  ?  Wliat  mountains  pass  through  it  ? 
What  peninsulas  belong  to  Mexico  ?  What  country  southeast  of  Mexico  ?  What  are 
its  political  divisions  ?  Where  is  the  Bay  of  Honduras  ?  Of  Campeche  ?  The  Gulf 
of  Tehuantepec  ?  Where  is  the  city  of  Mexico  ?  The  port  of  Acapulco  ?  Vera 
Cruz  ?    San  Jose  ?    Guatemala  ?    What  and  where  is  Balize  ? 


SPECIAL  TERMS. 

Iceberg.  —  A  mass  of  ice  broken  from  the  Arctic  shores,  and  floating  southward  with 

eighth  ninths  of  its  weight  under  water. 
Floes.  —  Broken  masses  of  floating  ice  in  the  Arctic  seas. 
Fiords.  —  Deep,  narrow  bays  on  the  rugged  coasts  of  Norway  and  Greenland. 
Forts.  —  Military  stations  ;  of  which  there  are  several  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 

for  protection  against  the  Indians. 
Fort&  —  Trading  stations  throughout  British  America  ;  usually  large  wooden  buildings 

where  stores  are  exchanged  for  furs. 


Ermine,  Sable,  Marten,  Mink.  —  Fur-bearing  animals  of  the  weasel  family,  from 
ten  to  fourteen  inches  long,  which  inhabit  British  America  and  Siberia.  The 
ermine  is  white,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  is  black,  and  is  used  to  orna- 
ment articles  made  of  the  fur.     The  other  animals  have  soft,  dark  fur. 

Dalles.  —  Rapids  in  the  deep  gorges  of  the  northwestern  rivers  of  the  United  States. 

Caiion.  —  A  cut  in  solid  rock,  often  several  hundred  feet  deep,  aad  several  miles  long. 
The  sides  rise  in  steep  walls,  and  a  stream  flows  at  the  bottom. 

G-eysers.  —  Boiling  springs  which  discharge  at  regular  intervals. 

Butte.  —  A  peculiar,  flat-topped  peak  rising  abruptly  from  the  plain. 

Knob.  —  A  term  used  for  high  hills  in  the  Central  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Oak  openings.  —  Park-like  woods  among  the  prairies  of  the  North  Central  States. 

Pine  barrens.  —  Sterile,  sandy  tracts,  covered  with  pines,  in  the  Southern  States. 

Everglades.  —  The  swamp  forests  of  Southern  Florida. 

Cane-brakes.  —  A  dense  growth  of  canes  or  reeds  among  the  Southern  swamps. 

Bayous.  —  Outlets  or  channels  formed  by  inundations  along  the  Lower  Mississippi. 

Levee.  —  An  embankment  along  the  Mississippi  to  protect  a  city  from  inundation. 

Rancbo.  —  Spanish  name  for  cattle-fann,  used  in  Mexico,  Texas,  etc. 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Rhode  Island,  the  smallest  State  in  the  Union,  has  an  area  of  a  little  more  than 
1,000  square  miles.  New  York  is  nearly  fifty  times  as  large,  while  Alaska  is  about 
four  hundred  and  fifty  times  as  large.  Texas  and  California  rank  next  to  Alaska 
in  size,  and  the  Western  Territories  are  larger  than  any  of  the  older  States. 

The  State  of  New  York  has  a  population  of  over  4,000,000,  Pennsylvania  of  over 
3,500,000,  while  Nevada,  the  least  populous  State,  has  less  than  50,000  inhabitants. 
Ohio  and  Illinois  have  about  2,500,000,  and  Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Massachusetts 
about  1,500,000. 

The  population  of  some  of  the  principal  cities,  according  to  the  eensus  of  1870,  is  :  — 


Cities. 

Population. 

CitlM. 

Population. 

Cities. 

Fopulatiou. 

New  York  . 

.       942,292 

Chicago    . 

.       298,977 

New  Orleans 

191,418 

PUladelphia . 

.       .    674,022 

Baltimore     . 

.    267,354 

San  Francisco 

.    149,473 

Brooklyn    . 

.       396,099 

Boston 

260,626 

Buffelo 

117,714 

St.  Louis 

.        .    310,864 

Cincinnati    . 

.       .    216,239 

Washington  . 

.    109,199 

More  than  two  thirds  of  the  exports  of  the  United  States  go  to  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  the  rest  chiefly  to  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  and  Germany.  They  consist  gil- 
most  entirely  of  agricultural  produce.  First  in  importance  stand  wheat  and  flour ; 
then  follow  cotton,  tobacco,  pickled  pork  and  hams,  butter,  and  cheese. 

The  imports  are  various,  and  from  all  the  different  markets  of  the  world,  —  sugar, 
iron,  steel,  woollens,  sUk  manufactures,  coffee,  flax  and  linen,  tea,  tin,  etc. 

REMARKABLE  OR  INTERESTING  LOCALITIES. 

Niagara  Falls. — On  the  Niagara  River  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

Trenton  Falls.  —  Upon  a  branch  of  the  Mohawk,  about  fifteen  miles  from  Utica,  in 
a  limestone  formation  where  fossils  abound. 

Palls  of  St.  Anthony.  —  On  the  Upper  Mississippi  in  Minnesota. 

The  Yosemite  Valley  and  Mariposa  Big  Tree  Grove.  —  Wonders  of  Cali- 
fornia, to  be  held  as  national  parks. 

The  Great  Geysers.  —  Boiling  fountains  in  the  mountain  region  of  Wyoming. 

Harper's  Perry.  —  The  passage  of  the  Potomac  through  the  Blue  Ridge  in  Virginia. 

The  Natural  Bridge.  —  Also  in  Virginia,  a  natural  stone  arch,  spanning  a  small 
branch  of  the  James  River,  and  more  than  two  hundred  feet  above  the  water. 

Delaware  Water  Gap.  —  The  passage  of  the  Delaware  through  the  Blue  Ridge. 

The  Palisades.  —  High,  basaltic  bluffs  along  the  Hudson  River  on  the  Jersey  side. 

The  Pictured  Rocks.  —  Bluffs  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  which  present  to 
the  eye  fantastic  shapes  as  seen  from  the  lake. 

Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky.  —  The  most  famous  of  many  limestone  caverns 
in  the  central  limestone  region  of  our  country. 

The  Notch,  the  Flume,  and  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain.  —  Special  points 
of  interest  among  the  White  Hills  of  New  Hampshii'e. 

The  Adirondacs  and  Catskills.  —  Much  frequented  mountains  of  New  York. 

Saratoga.  —  In  the  eastern  part  of  New  York,  containing  important  mineral  waters. 

Long  Branch  and  Cape  May.  —  Noted  beaches  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey. 

Ne'wport.  —  A  fashionable  resort,  with  a  fine  beach,  on  the  island  of  Rhode  Island. 

Nahant.  —  A  rocky  peninsula  in  Massachusetts  Bay. 

^ount  Desert.  —  A  mountainous  island  off  the  coast  of  Maine. 
\  St  Augustine.  —  On  the  coast  of  Florida  ;  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States. 


SOUTH   AMERICA. 


'.)l 


SOUTH    AMERICA 


HISTORY. 

The  circumstances  of  the  colonization  of  the  two  grand  divisions 
of  the  American  continent  were  sin<yularly  unlike. 

The  Europeans,  settling  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America, 
advanced  slowly  inland,  and  have  but  recently  reached  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  Spaniards,  after  the  discovery,  by  Columbus,  of  the  West 
India  Islands  and  the  mainland  of  South  America,  naturally  continued 
their  settlements  along  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ; 
and,  at- an  early  period,  they  had  spread  over  the  narrow,  central 
portion  of  the  continent,  and  also  over  the  northern  parts  of  South 
America,  seeking  gold  and  silver  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
Pacific  side  of  the  continent. 

The  North  American  Indians,  refusing  to  adopt  the  customs  of 
civilized  life,  retreated  before  the  Europeans,  or  were  driven  back 
into  the  wilderness  ;  where,  diminished  in  numbers,  they  have  re- 
mained mere  remnants  of  tribes,  never  becoming  associated  with  the 
white  race  or  the  government  of  the  country.  The  Spaniards,  pene- 
trating at  once  into  the  interior,  conquered  the  native  tribes,  and 
either  forced  these  Indians  to  adopt  their  laws  and  religion,  or  sank 
themselves  to  a  half-civilized  condition  ;  and  their  descendants  be- 
came rude,  half-barbarous  outlaws,  more  to  be  feared  than  the 
savages.  Thus  the  South  American  Indians  continued  to  form  a 
huge  portion  of  the  population,  with  sufficient  power  to  take  part 
in  the  affairs  of  government. 

The  South  American  colonies,  in  the  course  of  time,  freed  them- 
selves from  the  Spanish  government  and  became  independent  repub- 
lics ;  but  the  continual  struggle  between  the  educated  class  and  the 
half-civilized  and  Indian  population  keeps  the  country  in  a  state  of 
disorder,  and  revolutions  are  constantly  occurring,  —  one  president 
being  forcibly  succeeded  by  another,  and  perhaps  reinstated  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months.  The  political  difficulties,  together  with  the 
enervating  effect  of  the  tropical  climate,  have  prevented  the  South 
American  States  from  reaching  as  high  a  degree  of  advancement  in 
education,  commerce,  agriculture,  and  manufactures  as  many  other 
countries  have  attained  with  fewer  natural  advantages. 

Folitiual  Divisions.  —  The  large  part  of  South  America  which 
was  colonized  by  Spaniards  is  now  divided  into  the  nine  republics  of 
Venezuela,  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia, 
Chili,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  the  Argentine  Confederation. 

The  eastern  part,  now  occupied  by  the  Empire  of  Brazil,  was 
settled  by  the  Portuguese. 

On  the  northeastern  coast  are  the  three  small  colonies  of  British, 
Dutch,  and  French  Guiana ;  and  the  only  remaining  country  is  the 
barren  region  of  Patagonia,  still  in  the  possession  of  native  tribes. 

Inliabitaiits.  —  The  population  of  South  America  now  consists  of 
old  Castilian  families,  who  pride  themselves  upon  their  ancestors,  of 
native  Indians,  and  of  a  large  mass  of  people  of  mixed  descent. 
The  language  and  customs  of  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  being 
similar,  there  is  little  difference  in  the  general  appearance  and  con- 
dition of  Brazil  and  the  Spanish  countries,  and  the  prevailing  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic.  Though  the  South-Americans  have  made  less 
progress  than  most  other  civilized  nations,  great  improvements  have 

Questions.  —  How  did  the  circumstances  of  the  colonization  of  North  and  South 
Amerira  differ  ?  What  causes  hare  interfered  with  the  progress  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can States  ?  What  are  the  political  divisions  of  South  America  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
inhabitants  ? 


been  instituted  of  late  years  in  some  of  the  countries,  especially  in 
Brazil,  Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Republic. 

Cities.  —  The  architecture  is  much  alike  in  all  the  cities.  The 
houses  are  usually  built  of  adobe,  or  sun-dried  brick,  painted  in  light 
colors,  pink,  yellow,  blue,  etc.,  like  those  of  Southern  Europe  ;  roofed 
with  red  earthen  tiles ;  and  are  without  chimneys,  since  fires  are  not 
needed  in  a  climate  of  perpetual  summer.  The  dwellings  are  mostly 
of  one  story,  because  of  the  fr^quep^t  earthquakes,  and  consist  of  an 
interior  court,  or  i^alio,  surrourt^ed  tf  the  various  apartments  which 
open  upon  a  piazza  or  corridor  running  around  the  four  sides  of  the 
court.  One  entrance  leads  from  the  street  into  the  patio  ;  and  in 
the  better  class  of  residences  there  is  a  sec»nd  court,  surrounded  by 
the  kitchens.  The  windows  are  seldom  furnished  with  glass,  but 
with  small  iron  rods,  which  run  from  top  to  bottom,  and  .with  solid 
wooden  shutters,  to  be  closed  at  night. 

The  churches  and  convents,  cither  of  stone  or  adobe,  have  a  massive '' 
appearance  ;  but  in  almost  every  city  some  dilapidated  tower  or  wall 
indicates  a  recent  earthquake.  Evidences  of  the  national  religion 
are  found  in  all  the  cities,  —  religious  processions  move  through  the 
streets  with  solemn  prayer  and  chant,  bearing  images  of  the  saints  ; 
young  priests,  or  padres,  are  seen  in  their  black  robes,  capes,  and 
broad-brimmed  hats  ;  and  occasionally  a  capuchin  with  coarse  brown 
gown,  hood,  rope-girdle,  and  sandalled  feet. 

Some  of  the  most  common  street-sights  are  piles  of  fruits  heaped 
for  sale  by  the  wayside,  the  owners  crouching  on  their  heels  near  by  ; 
and  venders  of  rf«tes,  or  sweetmeats,  bearing  trays  on  their  heads, 
with  preserved  pomegranates,  marmalades,  and  candied  limes. 
[Take  the  Study  of  the  Map  here.     ^See  page  93.)] 

t 

y  DESCRIPTION. 

Surface. —  For  convenient  study,  South  America  may  be  divided 
as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  mountainous  region  of  the  Andes,  including  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili,  and  Patagonia. 

2-  The  Pampas  or  plains  of  the  La  Plata  River,  occupied  chiefly 
by  the  Argentine  Republic. 

3.  The  great  eastern  or  central  portion  of  the  continent,  including 
the  forest  plains  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Brazilian  plateau,  forming 
the  Empire  of  Brazil. 

4.  The  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  or  the  plains  and  forests  of  Venezuela, 
and  the  plateau  of  Guiana. 

REGION   OP  TEE   ANDES. 

This  lofty  mountain-chain  rises  abruptly  from  the  Pacific  coast, 
lifting  its  bare,  precipitous  peaks  far  into  the  region  of  perpetual 
snow,  while  within  them  rage  volcanic  fires  which  at  times  burst 
forth  in  flames  and  smoke,  or  send  out  streams  of  gfowing  lava. 
The  mighty  forces  that  once  convulsed  the  world  still  shake  and  rend 
this  mountain  mass  with  terrific  power,  and  earthquakes  leave  ruins 
in  every  city,  sometimes  burying  thousands  of  inhabitants  beneath 
the  crumbling  walls. 

[Continued  on  page  93.] 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  architecture  of  the  cities  ?  Of  tlie  evidences  o! 
the  religion  ?  Wliat  common  street-sights  ?  Into  what  natural  regions  may  South 
America  be  divided,  and  what  countries  does  eacli  include  ?  Describe  the  mountain- 
system  of  the  Andes. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


\ 
93 


STUDY   OF   THE  MAP. 

Area  about  7,000,000  square  miles. 

The  uniform  outline  of  this  half  of  the  great  Western  Continent,  and  its 
strongly  marked  natural  divisions,  make  the  study  of  its  physical  features  both 
simple  and  interesting. 

Position.  —  South  America  is  bounded  .on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
on  the  northeast  and  southeast  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  connected  with  North  America  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
at  its  northwestern  extremity,  and  tapers  .southward  into  a  narrow  point,  terminat- 
ing in  the  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  which  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  Strait  of  Magellan.  ■5*g|^'' 

It  extends  fiom  the  13th  parallel  north  to  the  56th  parallel  south,  thus  crossing 
nearly  70°  of  latitr.le. 

Climate.  —  The  broadest  portion  of  the  continent  is  a  little  south  of  the  equa- 
tor, where  it  extends  over  about  45°  of  longitude.  Thus  the  great  mass  of  land 
is  within  the  torrid  zone,  which  gives  a  tropical  character  to  the  continent,  though 
its  narrow  southern  extremity  reaches  nearly  through  the  south  temperate  zone. 

The  trade-winds  blow  over  the  broadest  portion  of  the  continent,  carrying 
their  moisture  to  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  and  forming  the  numerous 
streams  which  flow  into  the  Amazon.  The  corresponding  western  slope  is  dry 
and  desert-like.  Farther  south  the  returning  trade-winds  carry  their  moisture  to 
the  western  base  of  the  Andes ;  forests  cover  the  mountain  slopes,  and  short  streams 
flow  into  the  Pacific. 

The  tropical  portions  of  the  Andes  present,  at  different  elevations,  the  varieties 
of  climite  and  productions  that  are  found  between  the  equator  and  the  poles. 

rorm.  —  The  outline  of  South  America  is  triangular.  Tlie  northeast  coast 
from  Cape  Gallinas  to  Cape  St.  Roque,  bordering  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  At- 
lantic Ocean,  makes  the  base  of  the  triangle;,  the  southeast  coast  from  Cape  St. 
Roque  to  Cape  Horn  forms  one  side ;  and  the  western  or  Pacific  coast,  from  Cape 
Horn  to  Cape  Gallinas,  broken  by  the  outward  curve  from  the  Gulf  of  Arica 
northward,  makes  the  third  siJe  of  the  triangle.  Punta  Parina  forms  the  most 
western  point  of  this  large  curve. 

The  coast  line  is  very  regular,  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  on  the  north,  the  Gulf  of 
Guayaquil  and  Gulf  of  Arica  on  the  west,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  George  on  the  south- 
east, being  the  chief  indentations. 

Islands.  —  Joannes  Island  lies  in  the  btnad  bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon, 
and  the  island  of  Trinidad  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  The  Falkland 
Islands  lie  east  of  the  southern  point  of  the  mainland.  The  western  coast  of 
Patagonia,  is  fringed  with  islands.  The  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  is  off  the  coast 
of  Chili,  and  the  Gallipagos  Islands  are  in  the  Pacific,  off  the  coast  of  Ecuador. 

Mountains. —  1.  The  lofty  moijntain-system  of  the  Andes,  along  the  entire 
Pacific  coast,  consists  of  various  parallel  ridges  enclosing  long,  narrow  plateaus 
and  upland  valleys,  and  attains  its  greatest  elevation  in  Bolivia,  where  the  curv- 
ing coast  forms  the  Gulf  of  Arica.  The  western  range  continues  through  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  while  other  ridges  lower  than  that  of  the  western  coast  turn 
eastward  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  These  mountains,  like 
those  of  Mexico,  contain  many  volcanoes,  and  the  whole  region  is  subject  to 
violent  earthquakes.  The  most  noted  of  the  volcanic  peaks  are  Cotopaxi  and 
Chiraborazo  in  Ecuador,  and  Aconcagua,  one  of  the  highest  points  of  the  Andes, 
23,910  feet  high. 

2.  Another  lower  and  much  more  irregular  system  of  mountains  occupies  the 
eastern  portioir  of  the  continent,  consisting  of  a  number  of  short  chains  running 
in  various  directions  over  a  low  plateau  of  considerable  extent.  The  highest  of 
these  ranges  is  the  Sierra  Espinha90. 

The  Geral  Mountains  form  the  western  border  of  the  Brazilian  plateau. 

3.  A  snijiller  and  less  elevated  mountain-system  separates  the  basin  of  the 
Amazon  fr*:i  that  of  the  Orinoco. 

RiverajlP-  The  chief  rivers  of  South  America  form  three  distinct  systems  :  — 

1.  Tlip  Orinoco,  with  its  branches,  flowing  through  the  northern  valley  of  the 
continent,  between  the  plateau  of  Guiana  and  the  eastern  ranges  of  the  Andes, 
into  the  Athntic. 

2.  The  great  Amazon,  rising  in  the  region  of  the  Andes  and  flowing  eastward 
into  the  Atlantic  through  the  broadest  portion  of  South  America,  receiving 
branches  from  the  three  mountain-systems.  The  Cassiquiare  River  forms  a 
natural  canal  between  the  upper  cotrse  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  river  Negro,  a 
branch  of  the  Amazon. 


V 


3.  The  Parana,  rising  in  the  Brazilian  mountains,  and  flowing  southward  to  the 
Atlantic,  takes  the  name  of  La  Plata  before  reaching  the  ocean. 

The  Rio  Negro,  a  small  river  from  the  Andes,  flows  east  to  the  Atlantic,  form- 
ing the  northern  boundary  of  Patagonia. 

The  San  Francisco  flows  northward  between  the  ranges  of  the  eastern  part  of 
Brazil  into  the  Atlantic. 

The  Magdalena  flows  between  ranges  of  the  Andes,  into  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

All  the  rivers  of  South  America  necessarily  flow  into  the  Atlantic,  as  the  lofty 
mountains  along  the  western  coast  rise  abruptly  from  the  Pacific,  leaving  no  slope 
for  streams  of  much  length.  In  some  parts  of  the  western  coa.«t  torrents  rush 
down  the  mountains,  and  toward  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  heavy  mists 
and  dews  supply  moisture ;  but  through  the  middle  portion  of  the  Andes  the 
clouds  are  condensed  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains,  forming  the  Amazon 
and  its  branches,  while  the  western  coast  is  a  desert. 

Lowlands.  —  The  three  great  river-basins  of  South  America  consist  of  vast 
plains,  distinct  in  limits  and  characteristics. 

Around  the  Orinoco  extend  the  llanos,  or  great  grass  plains,  broken  here 
and  there  by  clusters  of  trees. 

The  Amazon  flows  for  thousands  of  miles  through  immense  forests  known  as 
the  seloas,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  regions  of  tropical  vegetation  in  the  world. 

The  pampas,  or  vast  plains  of  the  La  Plata,  are  covered  with  luxuriant  grass 
several  feet  high,  and  serve  as  pasture-lands  for  numerous  herds  of  cattle. 

MAP   QUESTIONS. 

What  are  the  boundaries  of  South  America  ?  In  what  zones  does  it  lie  ?  Between 
what  parallels  and  nu'ridians  ?  What  group  of  islands  north  of  it  ?  Mention  its 
capes  and  gulfs.  What  three  mountain-systems  ?  Mention  some  of  the  peaks  of  the 
Andes.  What  range  forms  the  western  border  of  the  Brazilian  plateau  ?  What  is  the 
chief  range  in  Brazil  ?  What  tliree  river-systems  are  there  ?  What  thiee  regions  do 
they  comprise  ?  Mention  some  of  the  branches  of  the  Amazon.  What  connection  is 
there  between  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco  ?  What  river  empties  into  the  Caribbean  Sea  ? 
Wliat  is  its  main  brancli  ?  What  river  empties  near  the  moutli  of  the  Amazon  ? 
What  island  at  its  mouth  ?  What  are  the'  branches  of  the  La  Plata  ?  What  long 
branch  has  the  Pai'ana  ?  What  river  farther  south  empties  into  the  Atlantic  ?  What 
island  at  the  southern  point  of  the  continent  1  What  separates  it  from  the  main  land  ? 
What  group  of  islands  noi'theast  of  it  ?  Where  is  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  ? 
What  desert  on  the  western  coast  ?    What  lake  on  the  border  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  ? 

Unlike  the  broad-spreading  mountains  of  North  America,  the  ranges 
of  the  Andes  run  closely  parallel,  uniting  in  massive  mountain-knots, 
and  enclosing  long,  narrow  valleys  or  plateaus  far  above  the  level  of 
the^sea.  The  valleys  and  ridges  widen  toward  the  middle  of  the 
chain,  which  attains  its  greatest  breadth  in  Bolivia,  or  near  tlie 
sharp  bend  of  the  coast  which  forms  the  Gulf  of  Arica. 

The  character  of  the  scenery  throughout  all  this  mountain-system 
is  in  the  highest  degree  grand  and  sublime  ;  with  lofty,  snow-capped 
summits,  sharp,  jagged  peaks,  steep  ascents,  impassable  chasms, 
bare,  precipitous  ridges  rent  by  deep  ravines,  rushing  torrents, 
and  tremendous  gorges. 

Within  the  torrid  zone,  the  trade-winds,  borne  over  the  plains  from 
the  Atlantic,  bring  to  the  eastern  slopeAbundant  rains,  and  therefore 
innumerable  streams  pour  down  the  rafrocs,  to  form  the  great  rivers 
of  the  continent.  But  the  western  slope,  shut  off  from  the  moist 
trade-winds  by  lofty  ranges,  and  receiving  no  winds  from  the  Pacific, 
is  often  destitute  of  water,  and  in  some  parts  entirely  barren,  as  in 
the  Desert  of  Atacama  along  the  coast  of  Bolivia. 

The  Pacific  States,  occupying  this  belt  of  mountain-country,  are 
similar  in  climate,  productions,  and  scenery.. 

Vegetation.  —  Scattered  over  the  steep  mountain-sides  arc  the 
various  kinds  of  thorny  cacti  which  abound  over  the  whole  continent. 
The  lower  slopes  and  valleys  are  covered  with  forests,  or  with  tropi- 

Questions.  —  How  does  it  difler  from  the  western  mountain-system  of  North 
America?  Where  is  the  chain  broade.st  ?  What  is  said  of  the  scenery?  Of  the 
eastern  slope  ?     Of  the  western  slope  ?    What  is  said  of  vegetation  ? 


94 


OUR  WORLD. 


cal  vegetation, — orange-trees,  bananas,  ferns  of  great  size  and 
beauty,  and  varieties  of  palms,  together  with  indigo,  vanilla,  cotton, 
coca,  etc.  Farther  up  the  mountains  are  grains,  grasses,  oaks,  pines, 
and  thejiuiit-trees  of  tem|>crate  climates  ;  higher  still  vegetatiow  be- 
comes scanty,  and  the  elevated  plateaus,  except  here  and  there  in 
some  sheltered  valley,  are  bare  and  dreary.  At  last  all  trace  of 
vi-getation  ceases  among  the  highest  summits,  and  bare  rocks  of 
granite  and  porphyry,  often  in  splendid  variety  of  colors,  or  snow- 
covered  peaks  encircled  with  mists,  surround  the  hardy  traveller  who 
ventures  into  this  desolate  region.  The  only  living  creature  to  be 
seen  is  f^ie  condor,  an  enormous  bird  which  inhabits  these  rocky 
heights,  reminding  one  of  the  eagle  in  North  America. 


The  Andes. 


Prodcctions.  ~  Among  the  special  productions  of  the  Andes  are  the 
cacao,  or  bean  of  which  the  various  preparations  of  chocolate  are 
made  ;  cinchona,  or  the  famous  Peruvian  bark,  from  which  quinine  is 
obtained,  in  general  use  as  a  medicine  ;  and  tha„eoca,  a  shrub  or 
sma^t^reer-BTx-or-eight  feet  high,  the  leaves  of  which  arc  chewed  as 

Questions.  —  What  are  the  special  productions?  What  is  cacao?  Cinchona? 
Coca  ?    What  is  the  condor  and  where  found  ? 


a  narcotic  by  the  people,  especially  by  the  Indians,  who  are  thus 
enabled  to  go  a  long  time  without  food  when  carrying  heavy  burdens 
over  th^  mountains  upon  their  backs.  The  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Boliviait  mountains,  even  as  high  as  8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  are 
covered  with  coca  plantations. 

Animals.  —  Beside  the  condor  hovering  amx)ng  the  upper  sum- 
mits, several  other  animals  are*  peculiar  to  this  mountain-region.  The 
lama,  a  sure-footed,  docile,  and  enduring  creature,  is  as  valuable  for 
purposes  of  transportation  among  these  difficult  mountains  as  the 
camel  is  on  the  African  deserts.  Its  hair  is  also  used,  chiefly  for 
making^  lace  and  dress  goods,  and  is  exported  for  that  purpose. 
The  alpaca  goat,  a  smaller  animal  of  the  same  family,  supplies  the 
silky  alpaca  wool  or  hair  so  generally  used  for  dress  fabrics.  The 
vicuna,  still  another  species,  is  a  gentle,  graceful  creature,  resembling 
the  gazelle  of  Eastern  countries.  Its  hair  is  exceedingly  fine  and  soft, 
iuid  is  used  to  some  extent  by  the  inhabitants,  but  not  exported. 
Among  the  Andes  of  Chili  is  found  the  little  chinchilla,  with  its  soft 
gray  fur:  In  the  lower  valleys  are  the  jaguar,  tapir,  ant-eater,  and 
other  animals  which  abound  in  the  forest  regions  of  South  America. 

Mining  regions.  —  The  population    and  principal  cities   of  the 
i  Pacific  States  are  collected  in  the  elevated  valleys,  or  plateaus  of  the 
'  tnining  region,  and  nowhere  else  in  tT^ejyorld  are  there  so  many  large 
cities  situated  at  so  great  a  height  above  the  sea-level.     These  cities, 
so  difficult  of  access,  are  greatly  dependent  upon  the  :fimall  ports 
with  which  they  are  connected  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
I      Throughout  all  the  mountain-ranges  rich  veins  of  silver,  copper, 
!  and  gold  have  yielded  their  treasures  since  the  earliest  days  of  Span- 
ish colonization.     The  more  exposed  veins  were  rudely  worked  by 
the  Indians  before  the  arrival  of  theSpani^ds,  and  since  their  settle- 
ment mines  have  been  opened  in  various  localities.     Yet  only  the 
simplest  methods  of  mining  are  in  use,  and  the  two  great  drawbacks 
to  success  are  the  difficulties  of  transportation  over  the  mountain 
roads,  and  the  want  of  water  in  some  of  the  richest  mining  districts. 
Sometimes  the  ore  must  be  slowly  removed  on  pack-mules  or  donkeys, 
while  a  second  train  of  mules  carries  a  supplj'^  of  water  for  the  first. 
The  most  important  mines  arc  those  about  Quito,  in  Ecuador,  the 
rich  copper  and  silver  mines  of  Chili,  and  the  famous  mines  of  Mount 
Potosi,  in  the  high  plateau  of  Bolivia.     This  conical  mountain  is 
pierced  with  shafts  and  galleries  in  all  directions,  large  masses  of 
rock  rciaaining  as  supports.  tf 

Transportation  across  these  lofty  and  steep  mountain-ranges  is 
everywhere  difficult,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  range  no  road  is  pos- 
sible. Most  of  the  higher  paso'oo  or  routes  can  only  b&  traversed  by 
the  sure-footed  mule  or  lama.  Kope-bridges  span  narrow  gorges  over 
rushing  torrents  b6neath,  and  up  the  precipitous  ravines  and  narrow 
defiles  of  Bolivia  and  Peru  the  traveller  is  borne  in  a  chair,  strapped 
to  the  back  of  an  Indian  porter. 

The  rich  agricultural  and  mineral  resources  of  these  .States  have  , 
remained  of  little  avail,  because  of  the  cost  and  time  necessary  for 
transportation,  —  all  goods  being  carried  from  the  coast  to  the  upland 
valleys  and  cities  on  pack-mules  or  lamas.  Long  trains  of  mules  are 
continually  winding  along  the  edges  of  precipices,  and  up  the  almost 
perpendicular  ascents  of  the  apparently  impassable  joads. 

Of  late  years,  however,  since  engineers  have  accomplished  such 
wonders  of  science  in  the  construction  of  tunnels,  bridges, -and  roads 
through  other  wild  mountain-regions,  efforts  have  been  made  to  lessen 

Questions.  —  What  animals  belong  particularly  to  tliis  region  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  lama  ?  Wliere  are  the  large  cities  of  these  States  situated  ?  WhatTTsaid  of  metals 
and  of  mining  ?  What  are  the  difficulties  ?  What  are  some  of  the  prin^pal  mining 
regions  ?  What  is  said  of  Potosi  ?  What  is  said  of  transportation  ?  What  improve- 
ments are  in  progress  ? 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


95 


the  difficulties  of  transportation  through  these  Pacific  States  of  South 
America.  For  several  y,ears  railroads  have  connected  Valparaiso  vsrith 
Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chili,  and  some  other  towns  ;  and  others  are 
now  in  process  of  construction  between  the  most  valuable  mining 
districts  and  the  principal  cities  and  coast  towns. 

Coast  region.  —  The  strip  of  country  between  the  mountains  and 
the  ocean  is  in  many  parts  narrow,  barren,  and  unattractive. 

The  settlements  are  chiefly  small  ports,  uninviting  in  appearance, 
where  supplies  are  received  for  the  upland  cities,  and  from  which  the 
products  of  the  interior  are  exported. 

Valparaiso,  however,  the  chief  seaport  of  the  Pacific  coast,  is  a 
handsome  city  of  considerable  size,  and  in  active  communication  with 
ull  parts  of  the  world,  carrying  on  a  large  trade  with  the  United 
States  Callao,  in  Peru,  and  Guayaquil,  the  port  of  Ecuador,  are 
visited  by  vessels  from  the  United  States  and  Europe.  But  these, 
and  the  still  smaller  ports  of  Arica,  Cobija,  etc.,  are  mere  trading- 
stations,  where  goods  !lre  exchanged,  and  where  travellers  find  the 
moans  of  continuing  their  journey  inland. 

[Refer  to  political  map,  page  100.] 

The  United  States  of  Colombia  occupy  the  northwest  corner 
of  South  America,  bordering  both  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.  They  are  a  confederation  of  nine  small  States,  of  which 
Panama  is  the  most  important.  There  is  a  considerable  transit  trade 
across  tlie  isthmus  from  Panama  to  Aspinwall.  Coflee,  tobacco,  and 
cotton  are  the  chief  exports  of  the  country. 

Bogota,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  a  picturesque  mountain-district, 
where  a  branch  of  the  Magdalena  Kiver,  precipitated  into  a  neigh- 
boring ravine,  forms  the  beautiful  Falls  of  Tequendama,  always 
crowned  with  a  column  of  vapor,  visible  at  a  distance  of  twelve 
iniles.  Cartagena,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Magdalena  River,  is  the  principal  seaport. 

The  Magdalena  and  Cauca  Rivers  flow  north  between  parallel 
ranges  of  the  Andes  into  the  Caribbean  Sea ;  and  most  of  the  larger 
liorthern  branches  of  the  Amazon  rise  in  the  mountain-region  of 
Colombia. 

Ecuador  lies  immediately  south  of  the  equator,  between  Colombia 
and  Peru,  and  is  separated  from  the  latter  by  the  head  stream  of  the 
Amazon. 

The  large  city  of  Quito  is  situated  in  one  of  the  highest  valleys  of 
he  Andes,  directly  on  the  equator,  and  surrounded  by  a  magnificent 
scries  of  volcanic  mountains,  including  the  lofty  summits  of  Cliim- 
liorazo  and  Cotopaxi.  Scattered  over  the  plain  around  the  city  are 
villages,  fields,  and  orchards,  while  flocks  and  herds  graze  on  the 
mountain-sides  ;  and  in  the  distance  rise  white,  glittering  peaks, 
with  smoke  and  flames  sometimes  issuing  from  craters  covered  with 
snow.  Guayaquil,  the  port  of  Quito,  ranks  as  the  second  of  the 
Pacific  ports,  and  has  a  population  of  over  20,000. 
r  Peru,  one  of  the  earliest  settled  regions  of  South  America,  was 
explored  and  conquered  by  Pizarro,  a  Spanish  leader,  who  climbed 
the  mountains  with  a  company  of  adventurers,  as  Cortez  had  done  in 
Mexico  a  few  years  before.  Here  in  these  high  valleys  of  Peru,  en- 
losed  by  lofty  mountain-ranges,  the  Spaniards  found  another  singu- 
:tr  people,  like  the  Aztecs  of  Me.xico,  dwelling  in  cities,  worshipping 
In  massive  temples,  carrying  on  manufactures  of  cloth,  metals,  and 
earthenware,  and  far  in  advance  of  the  savage  tribes  that  inhabited 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  coast  region  ?  What  are  the  principal  ports  ? 
Whisre  is  Colombia  ?  WJiat  i.'i^tho  government  ?  What  is  said  of  trade  and  export.s  ? 
What  is  the  capital  of  Colombia,  and  where  ?  What  rivers  in  Colombia  ?  What 
State  south  of  it  ?  What  is  said  of  its  capital  ?  What  is  the  chief  seaport  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  Fizarfot 


the  rest  of  the  continent,  and  lived  by  hunting  and  fishing.  The 
Incas,  or  rulers  of  the  ancient  Peruvian  cities,  have  long  since 
passed  away ;  but  their  old  city  of  Cuzco  still  stands,  containing 
many  ruins,  and  here  and  there  on  the  Bolivian  border,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Lake  Titicaca,  are  found  ruins  of  temples  and  palaces  of 
the  peculiar  architecture  of  this  ancient  people. 

Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  with  a  population  of  70,000,  is  situated 
among  the  mountains,  like  all  the  cities  of  this  region.  The  streets 
are  wide  and  lighted  by  gas,  but  ill-paved,  undrained,  and  dirty  ;  and 
the  houses,  as  in  other  South  American  cities,  are  painted  light  green, 
yellow,  white,  blue,  etc.,  and  built  mostly  with  flat  roofs.  Callao, 
the  port  of  Lima,  makes  a  poor  appearance,  with  its  low,  flat-roofed 
houses,  of  adobe  or  sun-dried  bricks,  but  has  an  important  trade. 

Peru  has  always  yielded  largo  supplies  of  silver,  and  along  the 
western  ridges  are  inexhaustible  mines  of  nitrate  of  soda.  Great 
numbers  of  lamas  and  alpacas  inhabit  the  mountains,  and  cinchona- 
trees  abound ;  but  of  late  years  the  vast  stores  of  guano  obtained 
from  the  Chincha  Islands,  lying  off"  the  coast,  have  been  the  most 
important  export,  bringing  to  Peru  an  income  twice  as  great  as  that 
of  her  metals.  Multitudes  of  petrels,  gannets,  pelicans,  and  other 
sea-fowls  have  perched  for  ages  on  the  rocks  of  these  small  islands, 
and  the  layers  of  guano  thus  formed  are  often  thirty  feet  deep. 

It  is  supposed  that  an  outlet  for  trade  may  be  found  through  the 
head  branches  of  the  Amazon,  along  the  eastern  valleys  of  Peru  ;  but 
all  this  part  of  the  country  is  now  inhabited  by  hostile  Indian  tribes. 
Some  of  these  savages  not  only  use  nets  for  fishing,  and  have  sheds 
for  salting  and  drying  their  fish,  but  cultivate  corn  and  cacao,  and 
evQfli  smelt  iron  with  considerable  ingenuity. 

~5^olivia,  occupying  the  broadest  and  most  elevated  portion  of  the 
Andes,  has  no  coast  region  except  the  barren  tract  known  as  the 
Desert  of  Atacama,  and  Cobija  is  its  only  port.  Its  upland  cities 
are  connected  with  the  coast  chiefly  by  the  small  Peruvian  ports. 

La  Paz,  the  chief  town  and  seat  of  government,  is  on  a  high  barren 
plain,  difiBcult  of  access.     Sucre  was  formerly  the  capital, 

Cochabamba,  another  important  town,  is  in  a  pleasant  valley,  with 
more  genial  climate,  and  surrounded  by  gardens  and  fruit  trees, 

Potosi,  one  of  the  most  elevated  towns  on  the  earth,  stands  in  a 
desolate  plain,  near  the  rich  silver  mines  of  Mount  Potosi. 

Chili  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  of  the  South  American  States. 
Lying  just  beyond  the  tropics,  and  witliin  the  mild,  genial  climate  of 
the  south  temperate  zone,  its  fertile  valleys  are  watered  by  rains 
brought  by  the  Pacific  winds,  and  yield  the  productions  of  both  torrid 
and  temperate  regions. 

The  coast  belt  is  broader  than  in  Peru,  the  mountain-range  nar- 
rower, and,  for  the  most  part,  lower  and  more  accessible,  though 
interspersed  with  volcanic  peaks,  of  which  Aconcagua  is  the  highest. 

Some  of  the  principal  places  near  the  coast  are  connected  by  rail- 
ways, and  along  the  roads  from  the  coast  towns  to  the  interior  are 
flourishing  fields  of  grain,  vineyards,  groves  of  almonds,  and  other 
tropical  fruits.  Peaches  and  other  fruits  of  temperate  climates  grow 
well,  and  strawberries,  especially,  come  to  great  perfection, 

Valparaiso,  with  its  spacious  suburbs  and  handsome  villas,  is  the 
largest  seaport  on  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  80,000. 

Santiago,  the  capital,  is  a  city  of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand 


Questions •  What  traces  of  the  Incas  remain  ?    What  is  said  of  the  capital  of 

Peru  ?  What  of  its  port  ?  Wh.at  are  the  exports  of  Peru  1  Where  is  guano  found  ? 
What  is  the  natural  oiitlet  for  the  trade  of  Peru  ?  Why  is  it  not  available  ?  What 
is  siiid  of  Bolivia  ?  Of  La  Paz  ?  Of  other  towns  ?  What  is  said  of  the  condition 
and  climate  of  Chili  ?  What  of  its  coast  and  mountain-region  ?  What  of  its  pro- 
ductions ?    What  of  Valparaiso  ?    Of  Santiago  ? 


/ 


96 


OUR  WORLD. 


inhabitants,  surrounded  by  magnificent  scenery,  and  yet  sufficiently 
accessible  to  be  connected  with  its  port  by  railroad.  It  is  well  built, 
with  a  spacious  alameda,  or  public  promenade,  bordered  by  poplai-s, 
and  contains  good  schools  and  creditable  literary  institutions. 

San  Felipe  de  Aconcagua  is  the  centre  of  extensive  copper  mines, 
and  a  mining  town  of  considerable  size  and  importance. 

Opposite  the  coast  of  Chili,  in  the  Pacific,  is  the  island  of  Juan 
Fernandez,  the  residence  of  Alexander  Selkirk,  upon  whose  adven- 
tures the  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe  was  founded. 

Patagonia.  —  Southward  from  Chili  the  Patagonian  coast  is  fringed 
with  numerous  mountainous  islands,  bathed  in  almost  perpetual 
moisture  by  the  prevailing  west  winds,  and  covered  with  forests. 
The  Andes  rise  abruptly  from  the  Pacific  coast  and  slope  eastward  to 
the  Atlantic  in  a  broad,  shelving  plain  of  sand  and  gravel.  Only 
scanty  shrubs  and  grass  are  produced,  and  the  inhabitants  live  chiefly 
by  hunting  and  fishing. 

The  most  important  animals  are  a  kind  of  deer,  the  ostrich,  and 
the  guanaco,  a  species  of  lama.    Water-fowl  abound  along  the  coasts. 

The  Patagonians  dress  in  long  mantles  of  guanaco  hide,  reaching 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  feet,  and  often  grotesquely  ornamented  with 
black  and  red  paint.  They  live  in  huts  formed  of  rows  of  stakes 
driven  into  the  ground  and  covered  with  guanaco  hides. 

Separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan  is  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  or  Land  of  Fire,  which  consists  of  a  group  of  islands,  ter- 
minating in  Cape  Horn,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent. 
The  general  aspect  of  these  islands  is  wild  and  desolate,  though  some 
parts  are  well  wooded  with  the  antarctic  or  evergreen  beech. 

A  few  tribes  of  savages  are  the  only  inhabitants. 

ThQ  passage  around  Cape  Horn  is  much  dreaded  by  sailors  on 
account  of  high  winds,  extreme  cold,  and  occasional  icebergs  from 
the  Antarctic  waters.     The  navigation  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan  is 


strait  of  Magellan. 

tedious  and  difficult.  In  many  parts  of  the  strait  the  scenery  is  quite 
striking,  —  the  banks  rise  on  both  sides  in  rugged  cliffs,  while  snow- 
covered  summits  and  glaciers  are  seen  on  every  side. 


Questions.  -  What  is  the  chief  mining  town  ?  What  island  off  the  coast  of 
Chili  I  What  country  south  of  Chili  ?  What  is  its  character  ?  What  of  its  in- 
habitants ?  What  islands  south  of  Patagonia  ?  What  is  said  of  them  ?  What  of 
mavigation  in  this  vicinity  ? 


East  of  the  southern  point  of  Patagonia  is  a  group  of  islands  be- 
longing to  England,  called  the  Falkland  Islands. 

THE  PAMPAS. 

The  broad  expanse  of  country  between  the  Andes  and  the  Parana 
River  consists  chiefly  of  immense  treeless  plains,  known  as  the 
"Pampas." 

This  boundless  level,  covered  with  luxuriant  bunch-grass,  four  or 
five  feet  high,  or  with  still  .taller  thistles  and  other  herbage,  is  with- 
out path  or  landmarks  to  the  inexperienced  eye,  and  interrupted  only 
at  long  intervals  by  a  solitary  tree  or  cluster  of  cactus.  Toward  the 
northern  borders  the  grassy  surface  is  interspersed  with  stony  tracts, 
groves  of  trees,  or  patches  of  bush,  and  along  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tains there  is  a  belt  of  marshes  and  ponds,  overgrown  with  aquatic 
plants.  Many  parts  of  the  plain  are  perforated  by  the  numerous 
holes  of  the  InscacJms,  small  animals  that  burrow  in  the  earth  like  the 
prairie-dogs  and  rabbits  of  the  North  American  prairies  ;  and,  instead 
of  the  grouse  or  prairie-hens,  are  occasional  flocks  of  South  American 
ostriches  running  swiftly  over  the  plain  upon  their  long,  awkward 
legs. 

As  long  as  the  earth  retains  any  moisture  from  the  annual  rains 
the  thick  pampas-grass  and  dark  green  thistles  spread  in  one  vast  sea 
of  verdure,  affording  pasturage  for  innumerable  herds  of  wild  cattle 
and  horses  ;  and  even  when  the  grass  begins  to  dry  into  hay  there  is 
still  abundance  of  nourishing  food.  But  toward  the  end  of- the  dry 
season,  especially  if  the  drought  is  unusually  protracted,  the  grass 
and  thistles  crumble  into  powder,  animals  perish  with  thirst  while 
seeking  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  clouds  or  whirlwinds  of  dust, 
like  the  sand  storms  of  the  African  desert,  overwhelm  the  traveller. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  plain,  along  the  banks  of  the  Parana 
River,  the  solemn  grandeur  of  this  vast  expanse  is  exchanged  for 
beautiful  meadows,  extensive  lawns,  with  here  and  there  palm-trees, 
and  a  variety  of  productions  of  both  the  tropical  and  temperate 
zones. 

The  Argentine  Republic.  —  The  region  just  described  formerly 
included  a  number  of  separate  provinces,  which  are  now  united  under 
one  government,  and  form  the  Argentine  Republic,  with  the  city  of 
Buenos  Ayres  as  its  capital  and  chief  commercial  port. 

The  country  has  many  natural  advantages,  —  unlimited  pastures, 
a  fertile  soil,  navigable  rivers,  and  a  surface  adapted  to  easy  trans- 
portation. But  this  republic  has  not  attained  the  prosperity  and 
importance  to  which  it  seems  entitled  by  nature,  owing  chiefly  to 
political  disturbances,  wars  with  neighboring  States,  and  revolutions 
and  dissensions  within  its  own  limits.  Intelligent  statesmen  have 
been  constantly  opposed,  in  all  their  efforts  for  the  welfare  of  the 
country,  by  the  ignorant  Indian  population,  and  by  a  class  of  men 
still  more  unmanageable,  called  the  Gauchos,  or  inhabitants  of  the 
Pampas.  < 

These  Gauchos  are  descendants  of  Spanish  adventurers,  and  have 
sunk  to  a  half-civilized  condition,  hating  the  restraint  of  law  and 
order,  and  abandoning  themselves  to  the  wild,  free  life  of  herdsmen 
on  these  broad  plains.  Their  poor  habitations  are  scarcely  homes  ; 
for,  being  sent  out  daily  in  boyhood  to  the  corral  with  the  cattle, 
they  soon  learn  to  live  on  horseback,  scouring  the  plains  after  wild 


Questions.  —  What  group  of  islands  east  of  Patagonia  ?  What  and  where  are  the 
Pampas  ?  What  is  said  of  their  vegetation  and  appearance  ?  What  are  the  most  com- 
mon animals  ?  What  is  the  appearance  of  the  Pampas  in  the  dry  season  ?  What  of 
the  country  along  the  Parana  River  ?  What  is  the  Argentine  Republic  ?  What  are 
its  natural  advantages  ?  Wh.it  has  interfered  with  its  prosijerity  ?  Who  are  the 
Gauchos  ?    Describe  their  manner  of  life. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


97 


herds,  lasso  in  hand  ;  and  collect  in  the  wretched  hovels  that  serve 
as  taverns,  where  they  drink  a  kind  of  beer,  gamble,  and  use  too 
freely  the  dagger  or  knife  that  is  never  wanting  at  a  Gaucho's  side. 
They  regard  the  population  of  the  cities  with  jealousy  and  hatred, 
frequently  oppose  their  plans,  and  sometimes  obtain  control  of  the 
government. 

The  country  has  now  an  intelligent  and  patriotic  President,  who 
has  introduced  many  improvements  in  schools  and  government  af- 
fairs ;  and  the  condition  of  the  country  is  comparatively  quiet  and 
hopeful. 

The  most  populous  and  best  cultivated  portion  of  the  country  is 
the  pleasant  district  about  the  Parana  River,  northward  from  Buenos 
Ayres.  Fields  of  grain  alternate  with  woods  and  pastures,  and  towns 
and  villages  are  scattered  over  the  country,  the  neatest  and  most 
thriving  of  which  are  occupied  by  companies  of  Scotch  or  Germans 
who  have  emigrated  to  South  America. 

Buenos  Ayres,  on  the  lower  course  of  the  river  where  it  takes 
the  name  of  La  Plata,  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  South  America, 
and- has  considerable  trade,  chiefly  with  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  foreign  residents  are  quite  numerous  as  compared 
with  other  South  American  cities,  and  there  are  several  Protestant 
churches. 

Cordova  is  a  quaint  old  Spanish  city,  with  a  Jesuit  college  and  a 
new  National  Observatory.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Mendoza  and 
San  Juan. 

Notwithstanding  the  fertile  soil,  the  exports  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  are  not  agricultural  products,  but  almost  entirely  wool, 
hides,  tallow,  salted  meat,  horsehair,  and  ostrich  feathers  from  the 
Pampas.  Wool  alone  constitutes  one  half  the  value  of  the  exports. 
In  exchange  for  these  products,  England  and  the  United  States  send 
to  Buenos  Ayres  manufactured  goods,  machinery,  coal,  and  iron. 

Several  railroads  are  in  the  process  of  construction,  machinery  and 
cars  being  sent  from  the  United  States  ;  but  over  the  Pampas  journeys 
are  made  in  companies  on  horseback,  with  guides  and  provisions  for 
camping  out,  and  there  is  always  danger  of  an  attack  by  Indians. 

East  of  the  Argentine  Republic  lie  the  two  small  States  of  Uruguay 
and  Paraguay. 

Uruguay  includes  a  portion  of  the  Pampas,  which  extend  beyond 
the  river,  and  is  very  similar  to  the  country  westward.  Its  exports 
are  hides,  tallow,  bones,  wool,  and  sheep-skins. 

Montevideo,  the  capital  and  seaport,  is  quite  a  flourishing  city, 
and  lias  a  large  trade,  chiefly  with  England. 

Paraguay,  included  between  the  Parana  River  and  its  chief  branch, 
the  Paraguay,  is  an  inland  State. 

Asuncion,  on  the  Paraguay  River,  is  the  capital. 

The  principal  article  of  commerce  is  the  male  or  Paraguay  tea,  a 
species  of  holly  cultivated  in  large  plantations.  The  leaves,  when 
dried,  are  ground  to  powder,  and  extensively  used  in  South  America 
as  a  substitute  for  tea. 

Most  of  the  manufactures  supplied  to  the  South  American  States 
ome  from  Great  Britain.  Emigrants  from  European  countries  go  to 
his  part  of  the  continent,  and  large  commercial  houses  are  conducted 
by  English,  French,  and  German  merchants. 

Questions.  —  What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  country  ?  Where  is  the  most 
flourishing  district  ?  What  is  said  of  emigrants  ?  What  is  said  of  Buenos  Ayres  ? 
What  other  towns  are  mentioned  heside  Buenos  Ayres  ?  What  are  the  exports  from 
the  Argentine  Republic  ?  What  are  the  imports  of  this  and  neighboring  South  Amer- 
ican States  ?  What  is  said  of  travelling  ?  What  small  States  ea.st  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  ?  What  is  said  of  Uruguay  ?  Of  its  exports  ?  Of  its  capital  ?  What  is  said 
of  Paraguay  ?  What  is  its  chief  town  ?  Its  chief  article  of  commerce  ?  Who  are 
the  merchants  of  these  States  ? 


Bndlian  Fonat. 

BRAZIL. 

The  great  eastern  or  central  mass  of  the  continent  is  included  in 
the  empire  of  Brazil,  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  South 
American  countries. 

Brazil  was  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  but,  outgrowing  its  connection 
with  the  mother-country,  like  the  Spanish  and  English  colonies  in 
America,  it  asserted  its  independence,  though  not  as  a  republic.  The 
son  of  the  King  of  Portugal,,who  had  been  in  the  Brazilian  province 
for  some  time,  was  chosen  by  the  people  as  their  ruler,  with  the  title 
of  Emperor,  and  the  country  was  soon  afterward  recognized  as  the 
Empire  of  Brazil.  There  is  a  very  mild  form  of  monarchical  govern- 
ment, however,  and  Don  Pedro  II.,  the  reigning  Emperor,  is  an  in- 
telligent man,  interested  in  the  welfare  and  progress  of  his  people. 

The  resources  of  the  country  are  varied  and  inexhaustible,  and 
much  progress  has  been  made  of  late  years  in  education,  trade,  and 
social  condition.  The  great  obstacle  to  commercial  prosperity  has 
been  the  want  of  good  roads  for  rapid  transportation  over  such  a  vast 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  position  and  extent  of  Brazil  ?  By  whom  was 
it  settled  ?  What  is  its  history  ?  What  is  its  present  condition  ?  What  is  the  great 
obstacle  to  commercial  prosperity  ? 


/ 


98 


OUR  WORLD. 


extent  of  country  ;  but  several  railroads  are  already  built,  and  others 
are  in  contemplation. 

This  great  empire  includes  within  its  limits  every  variety  of  surface 
and  scenery,  with  all  the  material  resources  which  belong  to  the  South 
American  continent. 

1.  E.xtensive  tracts  of  grass  pasture,  a  continuation  of  the  Pampas 
east  of  the  Parana  River,  afibrd  ample  opportunity  for  stock-raising, 
and  supply  wool,  hides,  tallow,  beef,  and  horn  for  exportation. 

2.  Tlie  broad  Brazilian  plateau,  with  its  bare  plains  and  rocky 
ridges,  contains  gold,  platinum,  and  stone  for  building  purposes. 
It  is  especially  rich  in  diamonds,  which  look  like  dull  pebbles  when 
washed  from  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  but,  when  cut  and  polished, 
are  of  great  brilliancy  and  value,  though  not  as  large  as  those  of 
some  mines  in  the  East.  Many  parts  of  the  plateau  are  wild  and 
picturesque,  with  mountains,  ravines,  rivers,  and  waterfalls  ;  while 
the  rich  valleys  and  fertile  coast  districts  are  admirably  adapted  to 
the  cultivation  of  coffee,  cacao,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  indigo,  aucf  other 
tropical  productions. 

3.  The  magnificent  selvas  or  forests  of  the  Amazon  spread  over 
hundreds  of  miles  along  the  course  of  the  great  river,  and  supply  the 
most  brilliant  dyes,  the  most  useful  gums,  and  all  the  varieties  of 
costly  cabinet  woods,  —  mahogany,  rosewood,  satinwood,  ebony,  etc. 

The  palms,  which  are  abundant  in  Brazil,  snpply  the  native  Indians 
with  food,  drink,  oil,  thatching  for  their  huts,  fibres  for  nets,  cordage, 
and  mats.  Bananas,  yams,  the  cassava  or  tapioca  plant,  and  various 
tropical  fruits,  serve  as  means  of  subsistence  to  many  tribes. 

In  the  forests,  plains,  and  rivers  of  Brazil  are  found  all  the  animals 
of  the  South  American  fauna.  None  of  the  huge  African  quadrupeds 
belong  to  this  continent,  and  the  fierce  wild  beasts  are  represented 
chiefly  by  the  jaguar,  or  American  leopard,  and  the  puma,  or  American 
lion,  both  of  which  are  much  feared  by  the  natives.  The  tapir,  an 
animal  resembling  the  hog,  inhabits  the  forests,  and  other  character- 
istic animals  are  the  sloths,  ant-eaters,  armadilloes,  monkeys,  and, 
in  the  western  mountains,  vicunas  and  alpacas.  The  deep  forest 
thickets  abound  with  serpents,  lizards,  ants,  scorpions,  mosquitoes, 
humming-birds,  parrots,  toucans,  and  other  birds  with  brilliant 
plumage. 

The  Selvas.  —  This  region,  spreading  over  an  area  five  or  six 
times  as  large  as  the  whole  of  France,  surpasses  every  other  part  of 
the  world  in  wild  luxuriance  of  tropical  vegetation.  The  trees  rise 
to  an  enormous  height  from  a  rich  undergrowth  of  yoiing  palms, 
canes,  and  rare  and  beautiful  ferns.  Their  great  trunks  are  often 
entwined  with  graceful  creepers,  or  clothed  with  brilliant  aerial 
orchids  of  fantastic  forms  and  colors,  while,  from  bough  to  bough, 
the  gigantic  lianas,  or  woody  vines,  hang  in  heavy  festoons. 

The  Amazon,  rising  in  the  Andes,  flows  through  this  whole  region, 
receiving  numerous  branches  from  the  north  and  the  south.  For 
many  miles  these  rivers  wind  through  forests,  where  the  sun  never 
penetrates  the  dense  foliage,  and  damp  mists' hover  like  clouds  among 
the  trees.  At  long  intervals,  in  the  more  open  parts  of  the  selvas, 
Indian  villages  stand  on  the  banks  of  the  river  ;  but  many  large 
tracts  are  wholly  impassable,  except  for  the  canoe  that  floats  on  the 
narrow  streams  leading  to  the  main  river,  through  dim  shades  of  over- 
hanging boughs ;  and  into  some  of  the  forest-depths  no  human 
being  has  ever  penetrated. 

Birds  of  gay  plumage  flutter  among  the  branches  ;  tall  flamingoes, 


Questions  — Describe  the  three  natural  divisions  of  Brazil.  Upon  what  pro- 
ductions do  the  Indians  depend  ?  What  are  the  animals  of  Brazil  ?  What 
and  where  are  the  selvas  t  Describe  this  forest  region  with  its  birds  and 
animals. 


herons,  and  spoonbills  stalk  along  the  marshy  river-banks,  and 
myriads  of  humming-birds  flash  like  gems  as  they  hover  and  flit 
among  the  flowers. 


Monkeys  of  many  kinds  and  sizes, 
distinguished   from    their   kindred   in     __ 

Africa  by  their  long,  prehensile  tails, 

scream  and  chatter  in  the  trees.  Dex- 
terously coiling  their  tails,  they  swing 
from  bough  to  bough,  or,  clinging  one 
to  another,  they  form,  with  their  bodies, 
living  bridges  from  tree  to  tree  for  the  passage  of  their  companions. 
Troops  of  plump  little  peccaries  run  hither  and  thither,  rooting  for 
nuts  like  wild  pigs,  which,  indeed,  they  are  often  called.  Alligators 
frequent  the  rivers  in  great  numbers,  and  the  huge  boa-constrictor 
crushes  his  prey  in  his  deadly  coils,  swallowing  large  animals,  and 
occasionally  a  human  victim.  The  puma  prowls  in  forest  thick- 
ets, and  the  jaguar  climbs  the  trees  after  monkeys  or  birds,  or, 
creeping  out  on  low  branches  overhanging  the  streams,  lies  in  wait 
for  such  fish  as  may  come  within  reach  of  his  stealthy,  cat-like 
claw. 

Large  parts  of  Brazil  are  inhabited  by  tribes  of  Indians,  some  partly 
civilized,  appearing  in  the  cities  from  time  to  time  to  barter  feathers, 
gums,  dyestuffs,  etc.,  for  other  wares;  others  savage  and  often  hostile 
to  the  whites,  making  it  dangerous  for  explorers  to  go  too  far  inland 
without  protection.  Throughout  the  western  and  central  parts  of 
the  empire  there  are  few  towns  or  white  settlements  ;  but  villages 
are  scattered  through  the  mining  regions  of  the  plateau,  and  along 
the  lower  banks  of  the  Amazon.  Farther  up  the  river  are  a  few  small 
settlements,  solitary  farm-houses,  Indian  huts  at  long  intervals,  and 
finally  depths  of  forest  with  no  habitations. 

Para  is  a  well-known  town,  toward  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon, 
where  explorers,  traders,  and  emigrants  make  their  last  prepara- 
tions for  starting  upon  the  somewhat  adventurous  journey  into  the 
interior. 

Along  the  coast  are  several  important  ports,  and  in  the  neigh- 
boring valleys  are  villages  and  large  cofl'ee  and  sugar  planta- 
tions. 

Bahia  is  an  important  port  for  the  exportation  of  sugar. 

Rio  Janeiro,  the  chief  commercial  port  of  South  America  and  one 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  population  of  large  parts  of  Brazil  ?  Where  are 
the  towns  and  villages  chiefly  ?  What  settlements  on  the  Amazon  ?  What  is  said  of 
Para  ?  Of  the  coast  country  ?  Where  is  Bahia  ?  What  and  where  is  Rio  Janeiro  ? 
What  is  said  of  its  situation  ? 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


99 


of  the  large  cities  of  the  Western  Continent,  is  the  capital  of  Brazil 
and  residence  of  the  emperor.  It  is  delightfully  situated  just  within 
the  tropics,  and  its  fine  bay  is  said  to  be  equal  in  beauty  to  the  famous 
Bay  of  Naples,  or  the  Bosphorus  at  Constantinople.  Fantastic  moun- 
tains enclose  the  bay,  stretching  along  the  shore  in  irregular  and  pic- 
turesque outlines,  and  the  city  is  built  on  the  level  spaces  between 
them.  The  streets  wind  in  among  the  hills,  and  along  their  slopes 
rise  rows  of  houses,  their  light  walls  and  red-tiled  roofs  contrasting 
strikingly  with  the  intervening  masses  of  dark  green  foliage.  The 
dwellings,  usually  of  stone  or  stucco,  are  of  two  stories,  which  is 
rather  uncommon  in  South  America.  The  prominent  elevations  are 
occupied  by  churches  and  convents.  On  one  side  rises  the  Morro 
de  Castello,  overlooking  the  harbor,  with  its  foreign  shipping,  and 
on  the  other  stands  the  convent  of  San  Beato. 

In  front  of  the  city,  and  facing  the  broad  expanse  of  the  bay,  with 
I  its  lovely  palm-covered  islands,  is  a  terrace,  three  hundred  feet  in 
length,  paved  with  marbles,  and  enclosed  by  low  walls,  with  trees  and 
flower-vases.  The  streets  of  the  city  are  filled  with  priests,  monks 
of  difl'erent  orders,  venders  of  sweetmeats,  beggars,  and  pedlers, 
who  go  about  bearing  trays  of  merchandise,  as  the  ladies  of  South 
America  seldom  go  out  for  their  shopping.  Especially  to  be  noticed 
in  the  streets  of  Kio  are  the  coflfee-carriers ;  for,  though  wagons 
are  used  more  than  formerly,  long  lines  of  half-naked  negroes 
may  still  be  seen  bearing  upon  their  heads  great  sacks  of  coifee, 
keeping  time,  in  a  running  trot,  to  the  measure  of  a  monotonous 
chant. 

Beautiful  suburbs  extend  along  each  shore  and  back  into  the  inte- 
rior, interspersed  with  villas  and  orange  groves.  Here  reside  most  of 
the  nobility,  ministers  of  state,  and  ambassadors,  forming  a  mixed 
population  of  Brazilians  and  foreigners  from  various  parts  of  the 
world.  The  massive  aqueducts  which  span  the  ravines  between 
the  hills  are  supplied  by  rivulets  from  the  mountains ;  and  washer- 
women bring  their  great  baskets  of  clothes  from  the  city  to  be 
washed  in  the  streams,  as  is  customary  in  all  South  American 
cities. 

Farther  inland  follow  gardens,  villages,  hedges  of  prickly  pear, 
bamboo  fences,  fields  of  sugar-cane,  and  large  coffee  plantations. 
The  beautiful  coffee  shrubs,  with  their  dark  glossy  leaves,  white 
flowers,  and  clusters  of  scarlet  berries,  are  planted  in  long  rows,  five 
or  six  feet  apart,  and  protected  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  by  the 
broad  spreading  upper  branches  of  lofty  shade-trees,  the  lower 
boughs  being  cut  away  to  allow  free  passage  of  air  and  light. 
Each  plantation  is  supplied  with  a  stone  court  or  pavement,  upon 
which  the  berries  are  crushed,  and  the  grains  dried  for  exporta- 
tion. Such  quantities  of  coffee  are  shipped  from  this  region  that 
"  Rio  coffee  "  has  become  a  familiar  term  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States. 

The  cassava,  or  flour  prepared  from  the  root  of  the  manioc  plant,  is 
largely  consumed  in  many  parts  of  Brazil,  and  is  made  into  bread  and 
a  variety  of  dishes.  The  creamy  substance  deposited  from  the  juice 
of  the  crushed  roots  is  the  tapioca  of  commerce. 

Bananas  are  to  the  people  of  South  America  what  dates  are  to  the 
Arabs,  or  olives  to  the  peasants  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  They  arp 
,  served  in  various  ways  on  the  tables  of  all  classes,  and  are  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  poor.  This  nourishing  and  delicious  fruit  is  pro- 
duced in  such  abundance  that  it  can  be  bought  everywhere  at  the 
most  trifling  cost. 
A 

Questions.  —  Of  its  houses  and  convents  ?  Of  its  streets  ?  Of  its  suburbs  ?  Of 
the  interior  ?  Describe  the  coffee  shnib  and  plantations  ?  What  is  cassava  ?  What 
ii  laid  of  bananas  ? 


7h  GUIANA. 

The  only  part  of  South  America  not  in  the  possession  of  the  Span- 
ish or  Portuguese  population  is  the  district  lying  along  the  northeast 
coast,  divided  into  three  colonies,  which  belong  respectively  to  the 
French,  Dutch,  and  English. 

The  hot,  moist  climate  and  fertile  soil  produce  fine  forests  and 
tropical  fruits. 

Though  the  coast  is  low  and  not  easily  accessible,  these  colo- 
nies carry  on  an  extensive  commerce,  exporting  sugar,  coffee, 
cotton,  and  spices.  Cayenne  pepper  comes  mostly  from  the  French 
port. 

Much  of  the  inland  country  consists  of  upland  plains,  but  some 
parts  of  the  coast  are  so  low  and  flat  that  in  portions  of  George- 
town, the  capital  of  British  Guiana,  there  are  canals  in  place  of  streets, 
and  many  of  the  houses  are  built  on  posts. 

Paramaribo  is  the  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana. 


The  Cacao. 


VENEZUELA. 

Venezuela  occupies  the  northern  portion  of  the  continent,  be- 
tween Guiana  and  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  including  the 
llanos  or  plains  of  the  Orinoco,  magnificent  forests  in  the  plateau 
south  of  this  river,  and  the  mountain  region  crossed  by  the  north- 
ern ranges  of  the  Andes  that  turn  eastward  along  the  Caribbean 
Sea. 

The  Llanos.  —  These  plains,  extending  along  the  northern 
bank  of  the  river  and  westward  for  a  thousand  miles  or  more,  are 
covered  with  tall  grass,  like  the  pampas,  which  becomes  parched 
and  dusty  in  times  of  drought.  Toward  the  close  of  the  dry 
season  large  tracts  are  burned  over,  in  order  that  the  grass  may 
spring  up  more  luxuriantly  when  the  rains  come,  and  make  rich 
pastures. 


Questions.  —  Where  is  Giiiiina  ?  To  whom  does  it  belong  ?  What  is  the  nature 
of  the  country?  What  are  the  cX|iorts?  Where  is  Cayenne?  What  is  said  of 
Georgetown  ?  What  is  the  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana  ?  Where  is  Venezuela  ?  What 
is  said  of  its  surface  ?    Describe  the  llanos. 


/ 


Afj,    3i  Went  „    ^i:v 


EAJi./L-!«,i  */ 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


101 


The  llaneros  or  plainsmen  are  as  expert  in  the  management  of  their 
wild  steeds  as  the  Gauchos,  and  from  being  continually  on  horseback 
acquire  a  rolling  gait  like  that  of  sailors,  so  that  they  are  easily 
recognized  in  the  towns  when  they  come  to  sell  cattle  and  hides,  or 
are  driven  from  the  plains  by  inundations. 

Large  districts  toward  the  low  marshy  delta  of  the  Orinoco  are 
overflowed  after  the  heavy  rains,  and  the  Indian  tribes  build  their 
habitations  on  platforms  raised  upon  poles,  or  secured  to  the  upper 
branches  of  the  trees  <vhich  are  scattered  in  clusters  or  groves  toward 
the  borders  of  the  plains. 

Another  low  tract  which  surrounds  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  is  the 
only  break  in  t)ie  high  coast  country  on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  is  in- 
habited by  Indians,  who  also  build  on  piles  driven  into  the  shallow 
flats,  their  groups  of  houses  being  connected  by  bridges. 

In  all  the  southern  portion  of  Venezuela  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains of  the  Parime  ridges  are  covered  with  dense  forests,  and 
the  rich  valleys  abound  in  tropical  fruits^  vines,  tree-ferns,  indigo, 
etc.  Colossal  palms  tower  above  the  other  trees,  supplying  sago, 
cocoa-nuts,  oil,  and  thatch.  All  the  cabinet  and  dye-woods  of  Brazil 
are  found  here  also  ;  and  from  these  forests  comes  the  chief  supply 
of  India-rubber,  which  is  the  gum  of  the  caoutchouc,  a  tall,  hand- 
some tree,  with  spreading  branches,  and  thick,  glossy  leaves.  The 
creamy  juice  which  flows  from  the  trunk  when  tapped  is  collected  and 
dried.  Vanilla  grows  in  great  profusion,  and  cacao,  or  chocolate,  is 
the  common  beverage  of  the  people  all  over  the  country.  Coffee  and 
Bugar  plantations  surround  the  towns,  and  every  village' has  its 
fields  of  bananas. 

The  animals  are  similar  to  those  of  Brazil.  Scorpions  and  lizards 
abound,  entering  even  the  city  houses ;  and  there  is  no  escape  from 
the  troublesome  little  chigoe.  This  minute  insect  introduces  itself  be- 
neath the  skin  of  the  foot,  where  it  deposits  its  eggs  in  a  sack  like 
that  of  the  spider.  The.se  eggs,  if  not  soon  discovered  and  removed, 
cause  great  swelling,  and  sometimes  diseased  or  deformed  feet. 
Venezuela  is  said  to  contain  a  greater  variety  of  monkeys  than  any 
other  country  in  the  world,  the  smallest  being  only  six  or  eight 
inches  long. 

The  mountains  rise  so  abruptly  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  that  the 
,  little  port  of  La  Guayra  has  but  one  level  street,  along  which  most  of 
the  foreign  shipping  anchors.  Short,  narrow  streets  run  up  the  moun- 
tain-side, which  is  much  too  steep  for  any  vehicle ;  and  the  whole 
town,  as  seen  from  vessels  approaching  the  coast,  looks  like  a 
toy  village  in  contrast  with  the  lofty  mountain-wall  behind.  The 
mountain-sides  are  everywhere  covered  with  the  stiff,  spiny  cactus  ; 
but  the  ravines  and  valleys  are  clothed  with  forests,  ferns,  vines, 
and  orchids. 

As  in  the  Pacific  States,  the  larger  cities  are  situated  in  the  narrow 
upper  plains,  and  the  road  from  La  Guayra  winds  up  steep  ascents, 
through  narrow  defiles,  along  precipitous  ledges,  and  then  descends 
into  a  broad  valley  twelve  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  mountain-peaks.  Here  stands  Caracas,  the  chief  city 
and  capital  of  Venezuela,  with  all  the  characteristics  of  the  cities  of 
the  Andes  region,  —  flat-roofed,  red-tiled  houses,  hedges  of  cactus, 
clusters  of  palms  and  bananas,  and  a  little  stream  running  through  it. 
The  city  has  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes,  and  many  of  the 
churches  are  partly  in  ruins. 

Excellent   coffee   is   cultivated   in   the   neighboring  valleys,   and 


Questions.  —  What  of  tho  llaneros  ?  How  do  the  Indians  of  the  plains  build 
their  habitations  ?  What  other  low  tract  in  Venezuela  ?  Describe  its  southern  part. 
What  special  product  here  ?  What  other  productions  ?  What  of  the  animals  of  Vene- 
zuela ?     Describe  La  Guayra.     Describe  Caracas.     What  are  the  exports  ? 


forms  the  principal  export  of  La  Guayra.  The  cacao  of  Venezuela 
is  considered  of  a  superior  quality.  These  productions,  together 
with  India-rubber,  hides,  tallow,  and  bone  from  the  llanos,  are  the 
exports  of  the  country,  shipped  from  La  Guayra  and  other  small 
ports. 


f 


4 


MAP  QUESTIONS. 


What  water  north  of  South  America  ?  Northeast  ?  Southeast  ?  South  ?  West  ? 
How  fs  it  connected  with  North  America  ?  What  cape  forms  the  northern  extremity  ? 
The  eastern?  Southern?  Western?  What  island  forms  the -southern  extremity? 
What  strait  separates  it  from  the  mainland  ?  Where  are  the  Falkland  Lslands  ?  Where 
is  Juan  Fernandez  ?  What  islands  near  the  coast  of  Peru  ?  What  islands  off  the  north 
coast  ?  Has  South  America  many  lakes  ?  What  lake  between  Peru  and  Bolivia  ?  What 
rivers  in  Colombia  ?  What  Gulf  ?  What  is  the  course  of  the  Orinoco  ?  Wheie  does 
the  Amazon  rise  ?  From  what  direction  does  the  Madeira  flow  into  it  ?  The  Negro  ? 
What  other  large  branches  has  the  Amazon  ?  What  river  connects  the  Negro  River  with 
the  waters  of  the  Orinoco  f^What  river  flows  into  the  Atlantic  between  Bahia  and 
Pernambuco  ?  Where  is  the  Parana  River,  and  what  name  does  it  take  toward  the 
mouth  ?  Where  are  the  Llanos  ?  The  Selvas  ?  The  Pampas  ?  What  are  some  of  the 
high  peaks  of  the  Andes  ?  What  countries  are  crossed  by  the  Andes  ?  What  is  the 
most  southem  country  of  South  America  ?  What  countries  border  on  the  Parana  River  ? 
What  part  of  the  continent  is  occupied  by  Brazil  ?  What  countries  border  on  the 
northern  coast  ?  What  foreign  colonies  ?  What  large  cities  among  the  Andes?  What 
three  principal  seaports  on  the  Pacific  ?  Where  is  Valparaiso  ?  Where  is  the  old  city 
of  Cuzco  ?  Where  is  La  Paz  ?  What  is  the  chief  city  of  Venezuela  ?  What  is  its 
seaport  ?  What  are  the  capitals  of  the  colonies  of  Guiana  ?  What  and  where  is  the 
capital  of  Brazil  ?  Where  are  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  and  Para  ?  What  and  where  is  the 
capital  of  the  Argentine  Republic  ?  Where  is  Montevideo  ?  Asuncion  ?  Cordova  ? 
Mendoza  ?    Cochabamba  ?     Arica  ?    Tacna  ?    Cartagena  ?    TruxiUo  ?    Maranham  ? 

SUMMARY. 

South  America  may  be  divided  into  five  regions  :  1,  the  lofty,  vol- 
canic mountain-region  of  the  Andes ;  2,  the  low  Brazilian  plateau  ; 
3,  the  grass  plains  of  the  Orinoco,  or  the  llanos  ;  4,  those  of  the  La 
Plata,  or  the  pampas ;  5,  the  vast  forests,  or  selvas,  of  the  Amazon. 

Vegetation.  —  The  characteristic  natural  growth  over  the  country 
consists  of  spiny  cacti,  tall  grasses,  ferns,  palms,  aerial  orchids,  and 
lianas  or  woody  vines. 

The  principal  productions  are  dye-woods,  cabinet-woods,  caout- 
chouc or  India-rubber,  Peruvian  bark  or  cinchona,  coca,  vanilla,  indi- 
go, cassava  or  tapioca,  yams,  bananas,  and  other  tropical  fruits. 

The  cultivated  products  are  coffee,  sugar-cane,  cacao,  cotton,  etc. 

Animals.  —  The  South  American  fauna  consists  chiefly  .of  rep- 
tiles, birds,  and  insects,  without  any  of  the  largest  and  fiercest 
animals. 

Among  the  mountains  the  common  animals  are  the  lama,  the  al- 
paca-goat, vicufia,  cliinchilla,  and  condor ;  in  the  forests  and  marshes 
jaguar,  puma,  tapir,  sloth,  many  varieties  of  monkeys,  alligators, 
boa-constrictors,  lizards,  scorpions,  ants,  mosquitoes,  butterflies, 
parrots,  humming-birds,  and  other  birds  of  brilliant  plumage  ;  and 
on  the  rocky  islands  myriads  of  penguins,  pelicans,  and  albatrosses. 

The  Mining  Products,  always  of  great  importance,  are  silver,  cop- 
per, gold,  and  diamonds.  The  latter  are  washed  chiefly  fiom  the 
river  sands  of  Brazil.  The  principal  mining  regions  are  in  Bolivia, 
Peru,  and  Chili. 

Inhabitants.  —  South  America  was  chiefly  settled  by  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese.  The  Spanish  colonics  have  become  the  independent 
States  of  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili,  Argen- 
tine Republic,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay.  The  Portuguese  colony  is 
now  the  independent  empire  of  Brazil,  under  Don  Pedro  II 

On  the  northern  coast  there  are  three  colonies,  known  as  British, 
French,  and  Dutch  Guiana.  The  southern  extremity  is  the  unset- 
tled country  of  Patagonia. 


.'*,'«- 


102 


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104 


OUR  WORLD. 


THE     EASTERN    CONTINENT. 


SOUTHERN    EUROPE. 

[Refer  to  Map  of  Europe,  page  111.] 


This  is  the  land  of  vineyards  and  olive-groves,  famed  for  its  great 
natural  beauty  and  for  the  throng  of  historical  associations  connected 
with  the  ruined  temples  and  gray  fortresses  which  rise  from  every 
island  and  promontory  of  "  The  Great  Sea."  Along  these  shores  we 
may  follow  the  world's  history  for  ages ;  and  the  young  people  of  each 
generation  hear  with  ever  new  interest  the  stories  of  old  Egypt,  of 
the  wars  and  myths  of  the  Greeks,  of  the  splendors  of  Rome,  of  the 
teachings  and  persecutions  of  the  early  Christians,  and  of  the  exploits 
of  turbaned  pirates  and  steel-clad  knights.  Of  all  the  Mediterranean 
countries  none  are  more  prominent  in  the  history  of  the  past  than 
Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain,  or  the  three  peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe, 
which,  with  a  part  of  Turkey  and  of  Prance,  occupy  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 

The  bold  cliffs  and  headlands  of  the  mountainous  shores  of  main- 
land and  islands,  interspersed  with  lovely  valleys,  are  in  the  highest 
degree  picturesque  ;  and  along  the  whole  coast  of  Southern  Europe 
there  is  a  general  similarity  in  scenery,  climate,  and  vegetation,  and 
in  the  occupations  and  habits  of  the  people.  The  atmosphere  is  so 
clear  and  dry  that  monuments  of  the  most  ancient  times  have  been 
preserved  for  ages ;  and  the  little  snow  that  falls  during  the  short, 
mild  winter  melts  almost  immediately,  except  in  the  shaded  gorges 
among  the  higher  mountains,  where  it  remains  all  the  year. 
•  Vegetation.  —  Within  these  narrow  limits  the  vegetation  of  three 
zones  appears.  Along  the  lower  slopes  and  valleys  thrive  olives,  dates, 
figs,  grapes,  almonds,  and  oranges,  the  cypress,  bay-tree,  myrtle,  and 
other  evergreens,  with  wild  thyme,  myrrh,  and  other  aromatic  plants 
The  mountain-sides  ai-e  covered  with  oaks  and  chestnuts,  and  in  the 
upper  alpine  regions  grow  birches,  pines,  and,  lastly,  only  lichens. 
These  highest  tracts,  however,  are  exceptional,  and  the  prevailing 
impression  is  of  a  land  of  fruits  and  evergreens. 

Agriculture.  —  Especially  characteristic  of  all  this  region  are  the 
olive-groves,  which  supply  substantial  food  for  the  people,  who  con- 
sume the  olive-oil  in  large  quantities  in  the  place  of  butter  or  meat. 
The  time  for  gathering  olives  is  regularly  appointed,  and  in  many 
provinces  is  regarded  as  the  important  harvest  of  the  year. 

The  culture  of  the  vine  is  universal,  and  the  sunny  slopes  are 
everywhere  covered  with  vineyards,  which  yield  a  threefold  harvest 
of  fresh  grapes,  wines,  and  raisins.  The  grape-gathering  is  also  ap- 
pointed by  law,  and  in  all  these  countries  the  vintage  is  a  national 
festivity,  — a  season  of  general  rejoicing  for  old  and  young,  rich  and 
poor.  The  young  people,  especially,  look  forward  to  the  days  among 
the  vines,  when  the  purple  clusters  are  heaped  high  in  the  wine-tubs, 
and  the  rich  juice  is  trodden  out  by  bare,  brown  feet,  since  no 
machinery,  it  is  said,  can  press  the  grapes  without  crushing  skins 
and  seeds,  and  so  spoiling  the  pure  flavor  of  the  juice.  After  the 
first  and  finest  wine  is  made,  however,  a  second  supply  of  juice  is 
obtained  by  harder  pressure,  which  makes  a  sharp,  cheaper  wine, 
used  by  the  lower  classes.  The  poorest  peasant  of  the  Mediterranean 
drinks  the  thin,  native  wine  daily  ;  but  intoxication  is  far  less  com- 
mon than  in  more  northern  countries,  where  stronger  liquors  are  used. 

Questions.  —  For  what  is  Southern  Europe  famed  ?  What  three  countries  were 
most  prominent  in  ancient  times  ?  What  is  said  of  the  country  ?  Of  vegetation  ?  Of 
olives  ?    Of  tlie  culture  of  the  vine  ? 


Fine  crops  of  grain  are  produced  in  many  provinces,  and  the  Medi- 
terranean is  one  of  the  great  grain-markets  of  the  world.  Tobacco 
is  very  generally  cultivated,  and  used  in  various  forms,  from  the 
cigarettes  of  Spain  to  the  long  pipes  of  the  Turks.  Nuts  assume  an 
important  place  as  a  product.  Chestnuts  are  eaten  as  an  article  of 
food,  and  the  walnut  is  used  for  making  oil. 

Flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  browse  on  the  rocky  heights,  and 
the  rude  peasants  of  some  wild  districts  do  little  else  but  watch 
their  flocks.  The  soft  merino  wool  of  Spain,  the  silky  Angora  wool 
of  the  East,  and  the  fine  morocco,  or  beautifully  tanned  goat>skins, 
of  the  African  shore,  all  have  attained  a  wide  renown. 

Silk-making,  with  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  and  the  rearing 
of  the  worms,  belongs  especially  to  this  region,  giving  employment  to 
the  whole  population  of  many  towns  and  villages  of  Italy,  and  to 
thousands  of  laborers  in  the  silk  factories  of  France. 

In  strong  contrast  with  the  ruined  temples,  broken  marbles,  and 
half-buried  columns  of  the  ancient  cities  are  the  various  colored 
houses  of  the  more  modern  towns,  with  their  flat,  red-tiled  roofs, 
conspicuous  from  afar.  In  this  mild  climate  it  is  the  custom  to  live 
much  out  of  doors,  and  the  people  not  only  tend  vineyards,  fields, 
and  flocks,  but  spin,  weave,  and  dance  in  the  open  air. 

GEEECE. 

While  England  and  Germany  were  still  inhabited  by  barbarians,  the 
ancient  Greeks  reached  the  height  of  their  glory  and  prosperity,  rep- 
resenting the  beauty  and  refinement  of  the  age.  Their  city  of  Athens 
was  the  centre  of  art,  literature,  and  philosophy,  and  was  adorned 
by  the  great  sculptor  Phidias  with  columns  and  statues,  which  have 
remained  as  models  for  after-ages. 

Greece  was  subdued  by  the  all-conquering  Romans,  and  shared  the 
fortunes  of  the  Empire,  sinking  deeper  into  obscurity  as  civilization 
spread  westward,  and  the  modern  European  nations  grew  in  pros- 
perity. Later  still  the  country  was  devastated  by  the  Turks,  who 
burned  and  laid  waste  forests,  fields,  and  villages,  driving  the  inhabi- 
tants into  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  the  interior.  With  the  aid  of 
other  Europeans  the  Greeks  freed  themselves  from  the  dominion  of 
the  Turks,  after  a  desperate  conflict,  and  a  monarchical  government 
was  established.  The  country  is  comparatively  quiet  now,  under 
King  George  I.,  a  son  of  the  King  of  Denmark  ;  though  a  bitter  hos- 
tility «till  exists  between  Greek  and  Turk,  and  the  whole  land  out- 
side the  towns  is  infested  by  robbers.  The  great  mass  of  the  people 
are  poor  and  ignorant,  and  some  fierce  clans  live  secluded  in  the 
inaccessible  mountain  provinces. 

Except  for  the  loss  of  the  forests  destroyed  by  the  Turks,  Greece 
is  physically  what  it  was  hundreds  of  years  ago,  when  the  shepherds 
piped  in  Arcadia  and  the  Olympic  games  were  held  in  the  sacred 
groves.  It  is  a  rugged  and  mountainous  peninsula,  strikingly  irregu- 
lar in  outline,  and  so  deeply  indented  that  the  southern  part,  formerly 

Questions.  —  Mention  other  products.  What  occupation  is  very  general  ?  What 
is  the  principal  occupation  in  many  towns  and  villages  ?  What  is  said  of  architecture  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Greeks  ?  What  has  been  the  history  of  Greece  /  What  is  its 
present  condition  ?    Describe  the  country. 


EUEOPE. 


105 


known  as  the  Peloponnesus,  forms  a  lesser  peninsula,  only  con- 
nected with  northern  Greece  by  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  It  is  a 
land  of  mountain-ridges,  deep,  narrow  valleys,  torrents,  glades, 
and  dells,  with  a  coast  of  rocky  headlands  worn  into  caverns  and 
,i;-rottos. 

The  slopes  are  covered  with  vineyards,  and  the  small,  seedless 
raisins,  known  in  commerce  as  currants,  are  exported  from  these 
shores  and  the  neighboring  islands  in  immense  quantities  yearly. 
During  the  currant  vintage  rich  proprietors  reside  in  their  coun- 
try villas  to  superintend  the  harvest,  upon  which  they  chiefly 
depend. 

On  the  rugged  isthmus  are  the  remains  of  the  once  wealthy  city 
of  Corinth,  where  one  of  the  early  Christian  churches  was  estab- 
lished, to  which  two  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  were  addressed. 


Orpcian  niin. 

Athens  stands  on  the  plain  of  Attica,  five  miles  from  the  sea,  with 
the  celebrated  fortress  of  the  Acropolis  upon  a  platform  of  rock  rising 
abruptly  from  one  to  three  hundred  feet  above  the  town.  On  tiie 
highest  site  in  Athens  stands  the  classic  Parthenon,  which  has  served 
as  a  model  for  so  many  public  buildings  in  modern  times.  Among 
other  famous  ruins  are  the  temple  of  Theseus  and  the  Areopagus.  In 
the  streets  of  the  new  town  people  from  the  East  and  the  West  are 
to  be  seen,  and  a  variety  of  national  and  foreign  costumes.  The 
Greek  costume  is  beginning  to  disappear  in  the  capital,  but  the 
young  palikars,  or  nobles,  still  wear  their  crimson  jackets  and  boots 
embroidered  with  gold,  full  white  linen  skirts  reaching  to  the  knee, 
and  the  Fez  cap  of  red  cloth,  so  common  on  the  Mediterranean 
shores. 

Islands.  —  No  part  of  the  Mediterranean  is  more  full  of  interest 
than  the  numerous  islands  scattered  over  its  eastern  seas.  Tiny 
and  insignificant  as  they  appear  on  the  map,  those  "isles  of  Greece" 
have  been  the  theme  of  poets  of  all  nations  from  the  time  of  Homer. 
Though  they  are  no  longer  so  finely  cultivated  as  of  old,  large 
populations  are  supported  still,  and  vineyards  and  olive-groves 
cover  the  hillsides,  villages  nestle  in  the  valleys,  large  cities  stand 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  currants  ?  Of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth  ?  Where 
is  Athens  ?  What  is  the  Acropolis  ?  What  are  some  of  the  ruing  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  modern  city  and  costumes  ?    What  is  said  of  the  islands  ? 


on  the  plains,  and  convents,  monasteries,  and  fortresses  crown  the 
rocky  heights  rising  from  the  blue  sea. 

The  Ionian  Islands,  comprising  Corfu,  Santa  Maura,  Cophalonia, 
Zante,  and  others  in  the  Adriatic,  were  settled  by  the  Greeks, 
but,  after  the  fall  of  Greece, were  overrun  by  one  nation  after  an- 
other, and  are  now  under  the  protection  of  England.  They  occu- 
py a  central,  position  for  trade,  and  export  wines,  currants,-  and 
olive-oil. 

C<5rfu,  especially,  is  an  important  military  station  and  commercial 
depot,  strongly  garrisoned  by  English  soldiers,  and  is  remarkable  for 
beauty  of  scenery  and  a  delightful  climate.  Good  roads  lead  from 
the  ports  inland,  ending  in  bridle-paths  among  the  mountains.  And 
here,  as  in  Greece,  groups  of  women  at  the  wells  or  fountains,  with 
their  long,  flowing  drapery,  and  ample  folds  of  linen  falling  from  the 
head,  give  an  Oriental  charm  to  the  scene.  Cephalonia,  the  largest 
of  the  islands,  is  similar  to  Corfu  in  scenery  and  productions.  Cur- 
rants form  its  chief  export.  Zante,  especially,  is  noted  for  currants, 
which  are  cultivated  on  every  hill.  The  little  island  of  Ithaca,  though 
of  no  modern  interest,  is  full  of  memories  of  the  most  brilliant 
period  of  Greek  chivalry,  and  is  immortalized  in  the  Odyssey  as  the 
home  of  its  hero,  Ulysses. 

The  iEcEAN  Islands  include  the  Cyclades,  belonging  to  Greece,  and 
the  Sporades,  belonging  to  Tnrkey. 

Thr  Cyclades  are  the  group  around  Delos,  once  sacred  to  Apollo, 
and  adorned  with  a  temple  revered  by  all  Greece,  but  now  a  desolate 
rock.  Naxos,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  group,  is  famous 
for  its  wine,  and  it  produces  also  oil,  figs,  oranges,  and  lemons. 
Pares  is  celebrated  for  quarries  of  marble,  formerly  used  in  Greece 
for  the  finest  statues. 

The  Sporades,  islands  along  the  eastern  coast,  of  which  Samothrace, 
Lesbos,  and  Scio  are  the  chief,  now  belong  to  Turkey,  though  colo- 
nized by  the  Greeks.  These  islands  sufiered  terribly  from  the  rav- 
ages of  the  Turks,  but  have  improved  in  late  years,  and  the  citron 
and  orange  groves  are  springing  up  again.  Wine,  oil,  and  fruits 
are  exported.  Cos  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  islands. 
Rhodes,  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  its  colossal  statue  of 
bronze,  was  for  two  centuries  the  stronghold  of  the  Knights  of 
St.  John. 

Crete,  or  Candia,  one  of  the  most  fertile  islands,  is  covered  with  an 
abundant  growth  of  aromatic  herbs,  myrtle,  orange,  lemon,  pome- 
granate, and  almond  trees.  After  long  oppression  by  the  Turks,  the 
Cretans  have  recently  made  a  desperate  but  unsuccessful  struggle 
for  independence. 

ITALY. 

[Refer  to  maps  on  pages  111,  120,  and  121.] 
In  ancient  times  the  name  of  this  country  was  lost  in  that  of  its 
great  city.     Rome  was  then  the  centre  of  civilization  and  power, 
and  our  associations  with  Italy  begin  only  after  the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  the  rise  of  modern  European  kingdoms. 

Instead  of  consolidating  into  a  strong,  central  power,  like  its 
ancient  representative,  Italy  has  been  divided  into  small  kingdoms 
and  free  cities,  each  eager  for  its  own  aggrandizement.  Torn  by 
dissensions  and  jealousies,  and  overrun  by  French  and  Austrians,  its« 
history  is  a  tissue  of  wars,  conspiracies,  treachery,  and  oppression. 


Questions.  —  What  and  wliere  are  the  Ionian  Islands  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
position  and  exports  ?  Describe  Corfu.  What  is  said  of  Cephalonia  ?  Of  Zante  ? 
Of  Ithaca  and  its  history  !  Of  Santa  Maura  ?  What  is  said  of  the  jEgean  islands  ? 
What  are  the  Cyclades  ?  What  is  said  of  Delos  ?  Of  Naxos  ?  Paros  ?  What  are 
the  Sporades  ?  What  is  said  of  their  condition  ?  Of  Rhodes  ?  Of  Crete  ?  What  is 
.said  of  Italy  ?    Of  its  history  ? 


106 


OUR  WORLD. 


The  war  of  1859,  however,  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a 
national  g-overninent,  under  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  considerable 
improvement  has  already  been  made  in  the  condition  of  the  country. 

Scenery  and  productioiis.  —  The  Alps  form  a  mountain-boun- 
dary between  Switzerland  and  Italy,  and  Northern  Italy  con- 
tains Alpine  heights,  glens,  and  lovely  lakes.  Here  are  Lakes 
Garda  and  Maggiore,  and  Como  with  its  precipitous  but.richlj'  culti- 
vated banks,  its  villas  and  terraces,  and  its  boatmen  in  picturesque 
costume.  •  ' 

At  the  base  of  the  Alps  spread  the  fertile  plains  of  Lombardy 
and  Piedmont,  drained  by  the  river  Po,  and  abundantly  irrigated  by 
means  of  canals.  Fine  crops  of  grain  and  grapes  are  raised.  Lom- 
bardy is  the  silk-region  of  Italy,  almost  the  whole  population  bein^ 
occupied  in  cultivating  the  mulberry-trees  and  rearing  the  silk- 
worm. 

The  southern  peninsula  is  traversed  from  north  to  south  by  the 
Apennines,  rugged  and  picturesque  ranges,  sending  out  headlands  on 
either  side,  and  becoming  wilder  and  ruder  toward  the  south,  where 
the  mountains  attain  their  greatest  elevation  and  a  savage  grandeur 
of  scenery.  The  volcanic  region  of  Italy  extends  along  the  coast 
from  Naples  southward,  including  Mount  Vesuvius,  Mount  Etna  in 
Sicily,  and  the  volcano  of  Stromboli  in  the  Lipari  Islands. 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  Italian  scenery.  Towns  and 
villages,  with  their  bright  colors,  are  scattered  thickly  over  the 
plains,  or  perched  on  crags  and  clifl's  amid  vineyards  and  olive- 
groves.  White  villas,  with  terraces,  balu.strades,  vases,  and  statues, 
peep  out  from  vines  or  groves  of  the  flat-topped,  Italian  stone- 
pine,  and  behind  all  rises  a  wall  of  richly  wooded  mountains. 

The  people  are  engaged  chiefly  in  agriculture,  and  with  little  labor 
and  very  defective  methods,  grain,  vegetables,  and  delicious  fruits 
are  produced.  Olive-oil,  fruits,  safl'ron,  capers,  drugs  or  medicinal 
plants,  and  grain  are  largely  exported.  Wines  are  made  throughout 
the  country,  but,  owing  to  the  method  of  manufacture,,  do  not  im- 
prove with  age,  and  are  unfit  for  exportation.  The  principal  export 
is  silk,  exceeding  in  value  all  the  others.  The  other  manufactured 
exports  are  chiefly  velvets,  braided  straw  in  which  the  Italians  ex- 
cel, mosaics,  carved  marbles,  porcelain,  majolica-ware,  artificial 
flowers,  and  jewelry.  Macaroni,  of  which  the  people  are  extrava- 
gantly fond,  is  a  dry,  hard  paste  of  flour  made  into  rolls  or  sticks, 
and  is  an  article  of  export. 

Immense  numbers  of  sardines  and  anchovies  are  also  exported,  and 
the  coral-fisheries  along  the  coasts  supply  the  costly  red,  pink,  and 
white  coral  used  for  ornaments.  Men  go  out  in  boats,  and  drag  the 
rocky  bottom  with  wooden  frames  or  nets,  in  which  the  coral  becomes 
entangled  ;  but  the  delicate  branches  are  crushed  in  this  way,  and  the 
finest  coral  is  obtained  by  diving. 

Cities. —  During  the  Middle  Ages  many  of  the  Italian  cities  were 
noted  as  seats  of  learning,  in  the  midst  of  the  general  ignorance,  and 
the  ancient  universities  of  Bologna,  Sienna,  Padua,  and  others  are 
still  in  existence.  Venice  and  other  ports  were  then  the  commercial 
centres  of  Europe,  supplying  the  Western  World  with  silks,  velvets, 
and  brocades.  The  cities  of  Italy  contain  museums  and  art-galleries 
filled  with  the  works  of  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  Canova,  and  other 
artists,  which  serve  as  models  for  the  civilized  world.  Nothing  is 
more  characteristic  of  these  cities  than  the  beautiful  suburban  villas 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  present  condition  of  Italy  ?    What  mountains  on  the 

^  north  of  Italy  ?    Describe  North  Italy.     What  is  said  of  the  valley  of  the  Po  ?    Of 

the  southern  peninsula  ?    Where  is  the  volcanic  region  ?    What  is  said  of  the  scenery  ? 

Of  agriculture  ?     What  are  the  productions  ?     Exports  ?     Manufactures  ?    What  is 

said  of  the  coral-fisheries  ?    What  is  said  of  Italian  cities  of  the  Middle  Age  ? 


belonging  to  nobles,  who  spend  their  incomes  for  fine  houses,  statues, 
and  pictures,  though  obliged  to  live  with  the  greatest  frugality. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  established  throughout  the  country, 
shrines  stand  by  the  waysides,  and  the  cathedrals  and  churches  are 
adorned  with  the  costliest  works  of  art.  In  the  streets  are  seen 
various  orders  of  monks,  easily  recognized  by  their  costumes. 

Rome.  -  -  On  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  in  the  midst  of  a  great  plain 
known  as  the  Campagna,  stands  Rome,  once  mistress  of  the  world, 
making  a  brilliant  picture  in  the  history  of  ancient  times,  when  the 
incense  of  costly  sacrifices  rose  day  and  night  from  the  altars  of  her 
temples,  when  triumphal  processions  of  her  victorious  generals 
moved  through  the  streets  with  captive  princes  chained  to  their 
chariots,  and  slaves  bearing  the  rich  spoils  of  war,  and  when  thou- 
sands of  her  people  gathered  in  the  amphitheatres  to  witness  combats 
of  wild  beasts,  or  of  gladiators,  trained  swordsmen  who  fought  in 
the  arena  before  fair  ladies  as  well  as  brutal  soldiers. 

And  when  the  Empire  had  fallen,  Rome  ruled  the  mediaeval  world 
by  other  means ;  for,  as  the  Christian  religion  spread,  the  Pope  of 
Rome  became  all-powerful,  receiving  the  homage  of  the  kings  and 
princes  of  Europe.  The  city  and  neighboring  provinces  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  Pope,  under  the  title  of  States  of  the 
Church. 

Ancient  Rome  has  almost  disappeared  ;  the  principal  remains  being 
aqueducts,  tombs,  gates,  baths,  and  arches,  all  crumbling  to  decay, 
and  the  Colosseum,  a  vast  amphitheatre,  with  tiers  of  seats  still  re- 
maining, where  the  ancient  Romans  sat  to  witness  the  combats  of 
fierce  lions,  tigers,  and  even  men. 


The  modern  city  has  its  own  interests  and  associations,  and  Rome 
is  now  the  capital  of  united  Italy.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  im- 
mense Church  of  St.  Peter,  with  its  huge  dome,  lofty  colonnades. 


Questions.  —  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  cities  ?  What  is  the  religion  of 
the  country '  Where  is  Rome  situated  ?  What  is  said  of  ancient  Rome  ?  Who 
were  gladiators  ?  What  is  said  of  the  later  power  of  Rome  ?  What  are  the  States  of 
the  Church  ?  What  is  said  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  Rome  ?  Of  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter  ? 


EUEOPE. 


107 


and  uumerous  statues  of  saints  on  the  entablatures,  each  twelve  feet 
high  ;  and  the  Vatican,  the  residence  of  the  Pope,  adorned  with 
Raphael's  pictures  and  the  frescoes  of  Michael  Angelo.  Among  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  city  are  its  magnificent  old  palaces, 
with  their  massive  stone  walls,  quadrangular  courts,  and  great  stair- 
ways. These  are  the  dwellings  of  descendants  of  noble  families, 
proud  of  their  birth,  and  unwilling  to  part  with  their  hereditary 
mansions,  though  sometimes  very  poor.  The  ground-floors,  with 
grated  windows,  are  let  to  tradesmen,  or  used  for  stables,  and  the 
broad  stairs,  though  of  fine  marble,  are  often  covered  with  dirt. 

In  Rome  are  many  studios  of  artists,  \*^ho  go  from  all  parts  of  Eu- 
rope and  America  to  study  art,  and  who  may  be  seen  in  the  gal- 
leries or  grand  old  churches  copying  the  works  of  the  masters.  The 
great  festival  at  Rome  is  the  Carnival  season,  when  the  streets  are 
filled  with  masqueraders,  carriages  wreathed  with  flowers,  and  witit 
a  joyous  populace  throwing  flowers,  bonbons,  and  egg-shells  filled 
with  perfumed  water. 

Civita  Vecchia,  the  port  of  Rome,  is  thirty  miles  distant,  and 
connected  with  it  by  railroad. 

Naples,  south  of  Rome,  is  built  on  the  shores  of  a  beautiful  bay. 
Suburbs  extend  along  the  shore,  and  the  cliffs  and  headlands  are 
studded  with  castles  and  houses.  In  the  distance  rises  Mount  Vesu- 
vius, sometimes  smoking,  sometimes  in  active  eruption.  Near  by 
stood  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  buried  by  ashes  or  lava 
during  the  first  known  eruption  of  the  mountain,  in  the  year  79,  and 
not  discovered  till  about  a  century  ago. 

Florence,  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  cities  of  Italy.  It  is  an  attractive  residence  for  foreigners 
on  account  of  its  healthful  climate,  grand  historical  monuments, 
and  numerous  art-treasures.  The  Campanile,  or  bell-tower,  by  the 
side  of  its  splendid  Cathedral,  and  the  bronze  gates  of  the  Bap- 
tistery, with  designs  in  bas-relief,  are  especially  admired. 

Leghorn,  one  of  the  chief  commercial  cities  of  Italy,  supplies  the 
interior  with  the  produce  of  European  countries,  and  exports  silks, 
rags,  drugs,  coral,  and  alabaster-work,  beside  the  straw  hats  and 
braids  for  which  it  is  famous. 

Genoa,  situated  on  a  gulf  scarcely  less  beautiful  than  the  Bay  of 
Naples,  is  another  important  city,  exporting  velvets,  silks,  damasks, 
gold  and  silver  work,  and  artificial  flowers. 

Turin  is  surrounded  by  scenery  of  unrivalled  grandeur. 

Milan  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral  of  white  marble, 
the  grandest  specimen  of  that  style  of  architecture  in  the  world.  All 
its  prominent  points  are  crowned  with  colossal  statues,  of  which  there 
are  said  to  be  more  than  four  thousand.  Milan  manufactures  fine 
chemical  instruments,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  silk-trade. 

Venice  is  built  on  seventy-two  little  islands  in  tiie  shallows  of  the 
Adriatic,  and  seems  to  rise  out  of  the  water.  Many  parts  are  trav- 
ersed by  canals  instead  of  streets,  and  the  long,  black  gondolas 
glide  noiselessly  up  to  the  houses.  Some  of  these  water-streets  are 
narrow  and  sombre  ;  but  the  Grand  Canal,  which  winds  through  the 
city,  is  broad,  light,  and  gay.  As  soon  as  a  steamer  drops  anchor  at 
its  entrance  it  is  surrounded  by  a  little  fleet  of  gondolas,  which,  re- 
ceiving passengers,  glide  lightly  and  gracefully  over  the  water. 
Along  the  canal  rise  marble-fronted  palaces,  and  beyond  them  the 
domes  and  spires  of  the  churches.  Among  the  beautiful  edifices  for 
which  Venice  is  famed  are  the  Doge's  Palace  and  the  Church  of  St. 
Mark.     The  Ducal  Palace  is  connected  with  the  prisons  by  the  cele- 

Questdons.  —  Wliat  is  the  Vatican  ?  What  is  said  of  the  palaces  ?  Of  studios  ? 
Of  the  Carnival  ?  What  is  said  of  Naples  ?  Of  Mount  Vesuvius  ?  Of  Florence  ? 
Of  Leghorn  ?    Genoa  ?    Turin  ?     Milan  ?    Venice  ? 


Venetian  houses  and  canal, 

brated  Bridge  of  Sighs,  so  full  of  sad  memories.  The  Rialto,  abroad 
bridge  across  the  Grand  Canal,  is  a  general  thoroughfare. 

Pisa,  with  its  loaning  tower,  Ravenna,  Mantua,  Verona,  Padua, 
and  many  other  places  have  special  associations  of  beauty  or  past 
history. 

Sicily.  —  South  of  Italy  is  the  beautiful  island  of  Sicily,  famous 
alike  for  classic  remains  and  for  the  grand  volcano  of  Etna,  which  has 
thundered  and  raged  at  intervals  through  many  ages.  The  scenery 
of  the  island  is  magnificent.  Ruins  of  ancient  temples  or  strong  for- 
tresses rise  from  mountains  and  precipices,  which  overhang  groves 
of  dark  green  ilex.  Village  houses,  painted  white  and  yellow,  stand 
at  the  base  of  cliffs  hung  with  purple  flowers,  and  surmounted  by  con- 
vents or  picturesque  castles  looking  seaward.  The  climate  is  like 
that  of  Southern  Italy,  and  through  the  whole  year  the  foliage  of  the 
orange  and  fig  trees  remains  in  the  valleys,  the  cactus  and  aloe 
border  the  waj'sido,  and  over  the  mountain  run  myrtle,  arbutus,  and 
laurel,  while  beside  convent  and  villa  stand  the  dark  cypresses. 

The  wealth  of  the  island  consists  entirely  of  its  natural  products. 
Half  the  cultivated  lands  are  devoted  to  grain-fields  and  pastures,  and 
the  remainder  to  vineyards,  olive-groves,  orchards,  and  gardens. 
The  vine  flourishes  everywhere,  but  is  only  cultivated  near  the  coasts. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  other  Italian  cities  ?  Eor  what  is  Sicily  famous  f 
What  is  said  of  its  scenery  ?    Of  its  climate  and  productions  ? 


108 


OUR  "WORLD. 


because  of  the  diflSculty  of  transportation.  Oil  from  the  olive-groves 
is  one  of  the  principal  exports.  Fruits  are  exported  in  immense 
quantities,  and  there  are  large  plantations  of  or-ange,  lemon,  and 
citron  trees.  The  inferior  qualities  of  these  fruits  are  used  for  vari- 
ous purposes ;  oil  is  expressed  from  their  rind,  citric  acid  is  obtained 
from  the  pulp  of  the  lemon,  and  a  rich  cordial  from  tlie  peel  of  the 
orange.  The  best  oranges  and  lemons  are  gathered  carefully,  wrapped 
in  paper  made  for  the  purpose,  and  packed  in  boxes  for  exportation. 
Messina  alone  exports  half  a  million  boxes  of  oranges  annually. 

Mount  Etna  rises  about  11,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  lower  slopes 
are  covered  with  rich  vegetation,  intersected  by  streams  of  black 
lava,  which,  slowly  decomposing,  makes  the  richest  of  soils.  The 
middle  or  "  woody  region  "  is  covered  with  forests  of  lofty  trees, — 
chestnut,  filbert,  and  cork-oak  ;  and  above  this  follows  a  desert  region 
of  stunted  plants  ;  and  lastly  a  dreary  waste  of  lava,  ashes,  and  scoriae 
forms  the  crest  of  the  mountain,  with  the  crater  in  the  midst  emitting 
sulphurous  vapors.  On  the  summit  patches  of  snow  lie  all  the  year, 
and  no  sound  of  life  is  heard,  but  only  the  thunder  of  tempests  and 
the  tremendous  explosions  of  the  mountain.  Such  is  the  fertility  of 
the  lower. region  of  Etna,  that  no  other  part  of  the  island  is  so  thickly 
inhabited,  and  nowhere  are  the  people  so  well  housed,  clothed,  and 
fed  as  in  the  fifty  or  sixty  villages  on  its  slopes,  where  they  enjoy 
their  comforts,  forgetful  of  the  danger  that  constantly  threatens. 

Here  stands  the  city  of  Catania,  encircled  by  groves  and  dark 
beds  of  lava.  The  lava  from  Etna  has  filled  up  its  harbor,  consumed 
its  gardens,  cruslied  its  walls,  and  nearly  buried  the  city  again  and 
again ;  and  yet  Catania  has  arisen  from  its  ruins,  ei-ected  new  pal- 
aces, and  founded  more  splendid  churches  and  convents  ;  the  very* 
substance  which  ravaged  the  plains  being  used  for  the  reconstruction 
of  the  city.  Streets  are  paved  with  lava,  churche*  and  palaces  are 
built  of  lava,  and  the  city  seems  to  be  a  direct  produfct  of  the  volcano. 
On  all  sides  are  cornfields,  vineyards,  olive-groves,  cottages  covered 
with  vine  leaves,  villages,  and  charming  villas,  all  resting  upon  the 
lava.  In  1693  Catania  was  destroyed  by  an  eruption  from  a  new 
crater.  There  issued  first  an  imnicnse  quantity  of  black  smoke,  then, 
with  a  terrible  crash,  a  torrent  of  lava  burst  forth,  red-hot  rocks  shot 
high  in  the  air,  and  the  ashes  and  sand  reached  Malta,  at  a  distance 
of  130  miles,  while  the  lava  flowed  over  valleys,  forests,  and  vil- 
lages. 

I  Messina,  the  northeastern  port  of  the  island,  stands  in  the  midst  of 
'a  rich  country,  and  exports  wine,  oil,  silk,  and  fruits.  Palermo  is 
memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  massacre  of  the  French  by  the 
Sicilians,  known  in  history  as  the  Sicilian  Vespers.  Syracuse,  once 
mistress  of  Sicily,  and  the  rival  of  Athens,  is  now  only  a  provincial 
town,  a  mass  of  rude  dwellings,  churches,  and  convents  piled  in 
strange  confusion  upon  the  hillside,  and  surrounded  by  beds  of  lava. 
Malta.  —  The  English  possess  not  only  the  fortress  of  Gibraltar, 
commanding  the  entrance  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  also  the  island 
of  Malta.  The  position  of  this  rocky  island,  the  enormous  strength 
of  its  fortifications,  and  its  magnificent  harbor  make  it  the  most  im- 
portant military  and  naval  station  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  useful 
depot  for  the  manufactures  of  Great  Britain,  which  are  distributed 
by  small  vessels  to  every  point  on  the  coast. 

After  an  eventful  history  in  ancient  times,  Malta  was  bestowed  by 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  upon  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  who  had  been 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  oranges,  lemons,  and  citrons  ?  AVliat  is  the  height 
of  Mt.  Etna  ?  Describe  its  slopes.  Its  summit.  What  is  said  of  the  people  in  the 
villages  around  Etna  ?  Describe  Catania.  Describe  the  eruption  of  1693.  What  is 
said  of  Messina  ?  Of  PaleiTOO  ?  Of  Syracuse  ?  Where  is  Malta  ?  To  whom  does  it 
belong  ?  What  are  its  advantages  ?  What  is  said  of  its  early  history  ?  Of  the 
Knights  of  St.  .Tohn  ? 


Fortress  nn  Malta. 


driven  from  Rhodes  by  the  Turks.  The  Knights  employed  their  great 
wealrti  in  fortifying  tiie  island,  and  then  followed  the  most  brilliant 
period  of  its  history.  The  Knights  engaged  in  subduing  the  fierce 
Barbary  pirates,  so  long  the  scourge  of  the  sea  and  the  terror  of 
merchant-vessels,  and  resisted  all  attacks  of  the  Turks  upon  the 
island. 

Afterward,  by  the  chances  of  war,  Malta  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  English.  Valetta  is  the  chief  port,  garrisoned  by  English 
soldiers  and  protected  by  the  fortress  above  it. 

Sardinia  and  Corsica,  two  large  islands,  the  former  belonging  to 
Italy  and  the  latter  to  France,  are  very  similar  in  surface  and  produc- 
tions to  the  other  islands  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Corsica  is  noted  as  tlie  birthplace  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  ;  and  the 
little  island  of  Elba,  near  bj^  as  the  place  of  his  temporary  exile.- 

SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL. 

Spain.  —  The  Spanish  peninsula,  with  its  fertile  soil  and  long  coast- 
line on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Mediterranean  Sea,  has  apparently 
great  advantages  for  commercial  prosperity  ;  but,  owing  to  political 
and  other  difficulties,  the  country  is  less  advanced  than  many  other 
parts  of  Europe.  Yet  there  was  a  time  when  Spain  had  both  glory 
and  power.  While  Middle  Europe  was  slowly  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  useful  arts,  the  Arabs  or  Moors,  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  the  old  Eastern  civilization,  made  their  way  from  Africa  into  the 
pleasant  region  of  Southern  Spain,  and  there  founded  the  fair  king- 
dom of  Granada,  which  was  first  a  dependency  of  the  Eastern  Mo- 
hammedan Empire,  but  afterward  became  an  independent  kingdom. 

Among  those  dark-skinned  Moors,  with  turbans  and  flowing  robes, 
were  poets,  historians,  physicians,  and  architects ;  and  under  their 
dominion  the  Southern  valleys  became  as  a  garden,  —  aqueducts 
bringing  water  from  the  mountain-streams  into  every  part  of  the  plain, 
and,  by  a  perfect  system  of  irrigation,  the  country  producing  abun- 
dantly for  a  large  population.  The  luxurious  Oriental  taste  showed 
itself  in  gardens,  groves,  and  fountains ;  and  beautiful  edifices  rose 
in  tiie  cities,  with  the  graceful  arches,  delicate  tracery,  and  intricate 
carving  peculiar  to  Moorish  architecture.  Here  grew  up  the  cities  of 
Cordova,  Seville,  Valencia,  and  Granada,  and  artisans  already  skilled 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  seaport  ?  What  is  said  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  ?  For 
what  is  Corsica  noted  ?  Elba  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  ?  Who 
founded  a  kingdom  in  the  south  of  Spain  ?     What  is  said  of  the  Moors  ? 


EUROPE. 


109 


in  Iiandicraft  wove  silks  and  woollens,  made  fine  leather-work,  and 
wrought  in  gold  anU  silver. 

At  this  time  the  Christian  kingdoms  in  the  north  of  Spain  were 
also  becoming  powerful,  and  were  in  constant  warfare  with  the  Infidels, 
as  they  called  the  Moors  ;  and  finally,  during  the  reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  the  Moors  were  conquered  and  driven  from  Spain.  But 
a  romantic  interest  still  attaches  to  the  valleys  and  cities  they  inhab- 
ited, and  a  few  of  their  descendants  are  scattered  over  the  country. 

During  this  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  America  was  discov- 
ered, and  the  treasures  of  her  Western  colonies  raised  Spain  to  a 
brilliant  position  among  the  countries  of  the  Old  World.  Her  empire 
at  one  time  included  large  provinces  of  Middle  Europe,  beside  valu- 
able possessions  in  the  East  Indies.  Then  followed  her  gradual  de- 
cline ;  she  lost  her  European  possessions ;  most  of  the  American 
colonies  became  independent ;  and,  under  a  government  sometimes 
despotic,  sometimes  inefficient,  the  people  have  been  poor,  agricul- 
ture defective,  and  manufactures  few.  The  country  is  now  in  an  un- 
settled political  condition. 

The  peninsula,  crossed  from  east  to  west  by  several  mouutain- 
chain.s,  with  large  rivers  flowing  between  them  into  the  Atlantic, 
consists  of  a  high  central  table-land,  sinking  into  valleys  and  plains 
toward  the  coasts,  which  are  in  some  parts  rocky,  in  others  low,  and 
at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  even  marshy. 

The  great  central  plateau  is  very  scantily  wooded,  the  country  often 
bare  and  dreary-looking,  and  the  scenery  wild  and  gloomy.  Many 
districts  are  entirely  uncultivated.  Grass,  however,  is  not  wanting ; 
large  numbers  of  sheep  and  goats  find  pasture  on  the  rocky  hills,  and 
wool,  especially  the  famous  merino  wool,  is  a  valuable  export. 

The  mountain-slopes  are  often  well  wooded  with  oaks,  chestnuts, 
and  evergreens,  and  the  valleys  and  plains  are  covered  with  the  varied 
and  luxuriant  vegetation  belonging  to  the  Mediterranean  shores.  In 
the  beautiful  Southern  provinces,  especially,  delicious  fruits  are  pro- 
duced in  abundance,  licorice,  capers,  and  madder  are  cultivated  for 
exportation,  and  a  large  quantity  of  raw  silk  is  exported  to  supply 
the  manufactures  of  other  countries.  In  some  districts  olives  grow 
in  profusion,  and,  with  a  little  coarse  bread  and  garlic,  form  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  peasants.  When  the  time  for  gathering  the  olives 
arrives,  the  villagers  repair  to  the  groves  with  donkeys  and  panniers, 
and  the  men  pick  the  fruit  white  the  women  and  children  fill  the 
panniers  and  drive  the  donkeys  to  the  towns. 

The  cork-oaks  of  Spain  supply  most  of  the  cork  used  in  America 
and  Europe.  At  the  proper  season  the  light,  porous  bark  is  taken 
from  the  great  forest-trees  in  strips,  several  feet  long,  and  prepared 
for  exportation.  The  wines  of  Spain  arc  more  valuable  than  all  the 
other  productions,  and  the  fine  sherry  wines  of  Malaga,  Xeres,  Ali- 
cante, etc.,  are  celebrated  all  over  the  world. 

The  mineral  exports  were  formerly  of  great  value,  especially  silver  ; 
but  now  the  most  important  are  lead  and  quicksilver.  Saltpetre 
is  also  largely  exported,  and  excellent  gunpowder  is  made  in  the 
country. 

Manufactures  have  never  flourished  since  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors;  and  though  the  merino  sheep  of  Spain  furnish,  the  finest 
wool  in  Europe,  only  a  coarse  woollen  cloth  is  made  in  the  country. 
One  of  the  most  common  manufactures  is  that  of  black  lace,  so  ex- 
tensively used  for  the  mantillas  worn  by  Spanish  women. 

Questions.  —  What  became  of  the  Moors  ?  How  did  Spain  acquire  importance 
as  a  nation  ?  What  cau.sed  her  decline  ?  What  has  been  her  condition  recently  ? 
What  are  the  natural  features  of  the  peninsula  ?  What  is  said  of  tlie  central  plateau  ? 
What  of  the  mountain-slopes  and  valleys  ?  What  is  the  principal  food  of  the  peas- 
ants ?  What  is  said  about  olive-gathering  ?  How  is  cork  obtained  ?  What  are  the 
wine  ports  ?     What  are  the  mineral  exports  ?     What  is  said  of  manufactures  ? 


The  country  is  finely  situated  for  commerce,  but,  owing  to  ineffi- 
cient regulations,  the  numerous  inlets  and  headlands  of  the  coast,  as 
well  as  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  are  infested  with  organized  bands 
of  daring  smugglers,  who  openly  defy  the  government,  and  the 
Spanish  contrabandists  have  become  a  recognized  class. 

Until  within  a  few  years,  not  a  railroad  was  found  in  Spain  ;  and 
throughout  the  interior  the  only  mode  of  transportation  is  by  pack- 
mules,  and  the  muleteer  is  quite  an  important  character. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  has  long  predominated  in  Spain,  and 
in  no  country  have  the  priests  and  friars  had  greater  power  and  influ- 


MoakB. 

ence.  Here  may  be  seen  the  Capuchins  with  shorn  heads,  coarse 
gowns,  rope  girdles,  and  sandals,  and  various  other  orders  of  monks. 

The  people  are  extravagantly  fond  of  dancing ;  no  village  festival 
occurs  without  a  fandango,  and  wherever  peasants  collect  under  the 
orange-trees,  after  the  day's  labor,  the  sound  of  castanets  may  be  heard, 
and  all  classes  play  upon  the  guitar.  Bull-fights  are  the  great  na- 
tional entertainment.  Every  large  city  contains  an  amphitheatre, 
and,  in  place  of  the  lions  and  tigers  of  the  old  Roman  arenas,  the 
fierce  bulls  of  Andalusia  are  prpvided  for  the  combat. 

Madrid,  the  capital,  stands  on  a  wide,  arid  plain  of  the  central 
plateau,  cold  in  winter  and  parched  with  heat  in  summer.  The  city 
is  enclosed  by  a  wall,  and  the  five  principal  entrances  are  approached 
by  avenues  of  trees  terminating  in  handsome  gateways.  The  sterile 
neighborhood  and  absence  of  villas  and  gardens  give  Madrid  a 
gloomy,  forbidding  appearance  from  without ;  but  the  streets  are  wide, 
well  paved,  and  supplied  with  numerous  public  fountains. 

Santander,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  Barcelona,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  Valladolid  and  Oviedo  are  among  the  principal  northern  cities. 

The  most  picturesque  and  interesting  cities  of  Spain  are  in  the 
beautiful  Southern  provinces,  watered  by  the  Guadalquiver  and  its 
branches.     Cadiz,  one  of  the  largest  ports,  is  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  commerce  ?  Of  means  of  transportation  ?  What  is 
tlie  national  religion  ?  What  are  the  amusements  of  the  people  ?  Describe  Madrid. 
What  are  the  principal  northern  cities  ?  Where  are  the  most  interestimg  cities  ? 
What  is  said  of  Cadiz  ? 


110 


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112 


OUR  WORLD. 


northwest  coast  of  Africa,  long  ftimous  for  its  wine,  which,  like  the 
sherry  of  Spain,  is  sent  all  over  the  civilized  world.  Vines  are 
cultivated  in  the  valleys  and  upon  artificial  terraces  far  up  the 
mountain-sides. 

Cape  Vekde  Islands.  — This  group,  lying  off  Cape  Verde,  belongs 
also  to  Portugal.  Orchil,  a  species  of  lichen,  which  grows  upon  the 
rocks,  and  from  which  litmus  is  obtained,  is  an  important  export. 

Canaries.  — This  group  of  islands,  not  far  from  Madeira,  belongs 
to  Spain.  Tcneriffc  is  the  chief  island  and  port.  The  volcanic  peak 
of  Teneriffe  sends  forth  jets  of  sulphurous  steam,  and  the  vapors  from 
the  crater  produce  beautiful  crystals  of  sulphur.  The  vegetation  of 
the  islands  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Azores,  and  here  are  found  the 
little  birds  that  bear  the  name  of  the  islands. 


SUMMARY. 

The  Mediterranean  region  includes  most  of  the  important  countries 
of  the  Ancient  World,  which  now  occupy  a  subordinate  place  among 
European  nations,  and  also  contains  many  populous,  richly  cultivated 
islands.  The  shores  are  characterized  by  a  mild  climate,  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  beautiful  scenery,  and  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities. 

The  distinctive  productions  are  the  olive,  currant,  grape,  cypress. 


myrtle,  tropical  fruits,  and  aromatic  plants.  The  principal  exports 
are  wine,  olive-oil,  figs,  dates,  currants,  raisins,  citron,  almonds,  fil- 
berts, hazel-nuts,  pistachio-nuts,  chestnuts,  walnuts,  drugs,  silk,<and 
wool ;  also  sulphur,  alum,  and  saltpetre  from  the  volcanic  regions ; 
and  from  the  sea  sardines,  coral,  and  sponges. 

The  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean  has  always  been  of  the  great- 
est importance,  including  the  direct  trade  with,  its  shores  and  the 
transit  trade  from  India,  which  has  increased  since  the  opening  of  the 
canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Suez. 

From  many  parts  of  Middle  Europe  the  Mediterranean  can  be 
reached  only  through  the  high  passes  of  the  Alps ;  but  the  Mount 
Cenis  tunnel,  recently  completed  after  thirteen  years'  labor,  leads 
through  the  solid  mountain  mass  between  France  and  Italy. 

The  Mediterranean  countries  of  Southern  Europe  are  Turkey, 
Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain,  with  parts  of  France  and  Austria. 

The  principal  islands  are  the  Ionian  Islands  of  the  Archipelago ; 
the  islands  of  the  Adriatic,  west  of  Greece  ;  Malta,  belonging  to 
England ;  Sicily  and  Sardinia  to  Italy ;  Corsica  to  France  ;  and  the 
Balearic  Islands  to  Spain. 

Some  of  the  important  seaports  are  Malaga,  Barcelona,  Marseilles, 
Genoa,  Leghorn,  Naples,  Messina,  Palermo,  Venice,  Trieste,  and 
Corfu. 


MIDDLE    EUROPE. 

[Refer  to  Map  on  pages  120  and  121.] 


Here  are  the  kingdoms  which  grew  up  after  the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  throughout  the  land  are  picturesque  ruins  of 
massive  abbeys  and  monasteries,  and  of  castles  rising  from  almost 
inaccessible  heights,  which  call  to  mind  the  brilliant  pageant  of 
the  ago  of  chivalry,  with  its  tournaments,  feudal  lords,  and  steel- 


Questions.  —  For  ■what  is  the  Island  of  Madeira  noted  ?    What  is  said  of  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands  ?    Of  the  Canaries  ?    What  are  the  associations  with  Middle  Eu- 


Enight  in  armor. 


clad  knights,  with  their  long  trains  of  spearmen, 
squires,  and  pages. 

In  Middle  Europe  are  included  Switzerland,  Aus- 
tria, Germany,  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  and 
France,  a  part  of  which  borders  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  island-kingdom  of  Great  Britain  be- 
longs by  its  history  and  associations  with  tlie 
countries  that  date  back  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

Middle  Europe  is  a  populous  region,  advanced 
in  civilization,  and  crowded  with  largo  cities,  in- 
teresting for  their  art-galleries,  universities,  cathe- 
drals, and  historical  associations.  The  manufac- 
tures are  more  varied  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Europe,  and  agriculture  is  very  general.  Flax  is 
grown  throughout  the  region,  taking  the  place 
which  cotton  holds  in  the  United  States.  The  seaboard  counti-ies 
carry  on  an  extensive  commerce,  and  have  colonies  in  all  parts  of 
the  world. 

SWITZERLAND. 

The  little  republic  of  Switzerland  consists  of  several  states  or  can- 
Ions,  with  a  central  government  at  Berne. 

Enclosed  among  the  main  ridges  of  the  Alps,  the  highest  mountains 
of  Europe,  Switzerland  is  a  land  of  peaks,  precipices,  avalanches, 
glaciers,  and  magnificent  scenery.  Every  summer  travellers  from 
all  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  America,  seek  the  wonderful  roads 
that  wind  through  valleys,  cross  over  ravines,  skirt  the  edges  of 
cliffs,  burrow  in  tunnels,  and  lead,  by  a  few  hours'  journey,  from 
green  fields  and  gardens  into  the  icy  solitudes  of  perpetual  winter. 
And  beside  the  regular  line  of  travellers  along  the  highways,  little 

rope  ?    What  countries  are  included  in  it  ?    What  of  their  civilization  ?    Manufac- 
tures ?    Agriculture  ?    Commerce  ?    What  ia  said  of  Switzerland  ? 


EUROPE. 


113 


parties  of  pedestrians,  with  staff  and  knapsack,  pass  their  summer 
holidays  in  seeking  charming-  by-paths,  climbing  glaciers,  or  hunting 
chamois. 


Climbing  tlie  Alps. 

•  Occupations. — The  people  of  SwitUerland  are  not  surpassed  by 
any  in  Europe  for  their  industry  and  skill.  There  are  no  large  cities, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  transportation,  but  in  the  valleys  are  busy 
towns  and  villages  where  silks,  ribbons,  paper,  thread,  muslins,  jew- 
elry, etc.,  are  made.  Watch-making,  especially,  is  carried  to  such  an 
extent  that  Swiss  watches  are  known  all  over  the  world. 

Wood-carving  is  a  very  common  occupation,  and  a  great  variety 
of  graceful,  grotesque,  and  useful  articles  are  cut  out  of  the  soft, 
white  pine-wood  of  the  forests,  and  collected  in  the  towns  for  expor- 
tation. The  Swiss  boy  begins  to  whittle  out  toys  as  soon  as  he  can 
handle  a  knife,  and  the  old  man  sits  by  his  cottage  door,  carving  a 
chamois  that  will  perhaps  make  its  way  across  the  Atlantic. 

Grazing.  —  Not  much  is  possible  in  the  way  of  agriculture,  though 
there  are  fine  fields  of  grain  and  flax  in  the  lower  valleys,  but  pasture- 
lands  are  abundant.  During  the  summer  the  cattle  are  driven  to  the 
higher  Alp  pastures ;  and  scattered  over  the  mountain-sides  are 
herdsmen's  chalets,  or  log-huts,  with  their  pi'ojecting  roofs  of  rough 
boards  held  in  place  by  large  stones.  Nothing  seems  so  peculiarly 
Swiss  as  these  Alp  pastures,  with  their  chfdets,  sparkling  mountain- 
springs,  log  bridges,  tinkling  cow-bells,  and  the  full,  clear  echoes  of 
the  "  Ranz  des  Vaches,"  or  herdsman's  national  song. 


Questions. 

of  agriculture  ? 
Vaches  "  ? 


-  What  is  said  of  manufactures  ?    Of  wood-carving  ?    What  is  said 
Of  the  Alp  pastures  ?    What  is  a  chalet  ?     Wliat  is  the  "  Ranz  des 


Mountains.  — Though  the  whole  country  is  rugged  there  are  two 
principal  ranges  of  mountains,  —  the  Jura,  along  the  French  fron- 
tier on  the  northwest,  and  the  great  mountain-belt  of  the  Alps 
on  the  southern  boundary.  Along  its  snowy  crest  are  the  high 
passes  of  St.  Bernard,  Simplon,  and  St.  Gothard,  leading  into  the 
Italian  valleys  beyond.  Associated  with  the  mountains  and  glaciers 
of  Switzerland  are  the  well-known  peaks,  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte 
Rosa,  though  they  are  just  beyond  the  border. 

Near  each  of  the  great  passes  is  a  hospice,  or  large,  simply-furnished 
wooden  building,  in  the  care  of  a  few  monks,  who  render  assistance 
to  travellers  That  of  St.  Bernard,  especially,  has  become  celebrated 
for  its  fine  race  of  dogs,  that  have  saved  the  lives  of  many  travellers 
lost  in  the  snow. 

Avalanches.  —  Lai'ge  masses  of  snow  occasionally  slide  down  tHe 
slopes  of  high  mountains  and  are  very  dangerous.  With  a  mighty 
roar  that  is  heard  for  miles,  an  avalanche  comes  crashing  down 
the  valley,  sweeping  away  forests,  snapping  tall  pines  like  straws, 
killing  cattle,  and  sometimes  burying  whole  villages  beneath  its 
weight. 

Glaciers.  — Far  up  among  the  higher  Alps  great  fields  of  snow 
and  ice  become  bedded  between  the  summits,  and,  changed  by  al- 
ternate melting  and  freezing  on  the  surface,  and  by  the  pressure  upon 
their  lower  strata,  push  down  the  valleys  during  the  summer  with 
a  slow,  imperceptible  motion.  These  ice-rivers,  or  glaciers,  extend 
for  miles  down  the  valley,  i-eaching  even  the  green  meadows.  The 
moving  mass,  though  apparently  the  same  year  after  year,  is  con- 
stantly increased  by  new  accumulations  of  snow  at  the  upper  end, 
while  it  melts  away  at  the  lower,  where  a  river  is  usually  formed, 
Mowing  out  from  a  cavern  worn  under  the  ice. 

Rivers.  —  Both  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone  are  formed  by  glaciers, 
and  rise  near  each  other  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  St.  Gothard  Pass. 
The  Rhine  flows  north  through  Lake  Constance,  then  turns  westward, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Switzerland  and  Germany  as  far  as 
Basle  ;  there  it  makes  a  bend  northward  and  flows  into  the  North  Sea. 
Tlie  Rhone  flows  southwest  through  Lake  Geneva,  on  the  borders  of 
France,  and  turns  southward  toward  the  Mediterranean.  The  Aar 
rises  in  glaciers  near  the  Grimsel  Pass,  and  innumerable  smaller 
streams  or  cataracts  pour  down  the  ravines. 

Lakes  and  towns.  — Chief  among  the  beauties  of  Switzerland  are 
the  many  little  lakes,  fed  by  glaciers,  which  lie  in  the  valleys,  re- 
flecting villages,  green  meadows,  mountain,  clift",  and  forest.  The 
beautiful  Lake  of  Geneva,  about  fifty-five  miles  long,  lies  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Switzerland  and  France.  Geneva,  the  most  populous  town 
in  the  country,  stands  at  the  extremity  of  the  lake  where  the  Rhone 
leaves  it.  It  is  the  great  centre  of  the  watch-trade,  exporting  more 
watches  than  any  other  place  except  Paris.  It  is  almost  as  famous 
for  musical  boxes.  Lake  Constance  lies  on  the  northeast  corner,  be- 
tween Switzerland  and  Germany,  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Rhine 
from  the  central  highlands.  The  old  city  of  Constance,  on  its  border, 
belongs  to  Germany.  Not  far  westward  from  the  lake  are  the  great 
falls  of  the  Rhine  at  Schafl'hausen.  Lake  Lucerne  is  noted  as  one  of 
the  wildest  and  most  picturesque  of  the  Swiss  lakes.  It  lies  far  up 
among  tlie  Alps,  with  Mount  Righi  on  one  side  and  Mount  Pilatus  on 
the  other.  Deep  arms  or  bays  indent  the  wild,  precipitous  shores  of 
Uri  and  Unterwalden,  immortalized  in  the  story  of  William  Tell. 

Lake  Zurich  is  in  the  midst  of  the  most  prosperous  and  thickly 
peopled  canton  of  Switzerland.     At  the  northern  end  of  the  lake  is 


Questions What  are  the  mountain-ranges  ?    What  are  the  chief  passes  ?    What 

are  the  hospices  1    What  is  said  of  avalanches  ?     Glaciei's  ?    What  are  the  chief  rivers  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  lakes  ?    Of  Geneva  ?    Constance  ?    Lucerne  ?    Zurich  ? 


114 


OUR  WORLD. 


Swiss  chUet. 

the  town  of  Zurich,  the  capital  of  the  canton,  and  the  most  important 
manufacturing  place  of  Switzerland.  Every  mountain-stream  turns  a 
mill,  and  here  the  Swiss  muslins  are  largely  manufactured.  Lake 
Neufchatel,  in  the  Jura  Mountains,  is  the  largest  of  the  lakes  which 
lie  wholly  in  Switzerland.  Most  of  the  watches  and  clocks  sold  in 
Geneva  are  made  in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel. 

Berne,  the  capital  of  the  Eepublic,  is  built  on  a  high  promontory 
formed  by  a  bend  in  the  river  Aar.  About  a  dozen  miles  from  Berne 
is  the  pretty  little  Lake  Thun.  Basle,  on  the  Khine,  stands  on  the 
frontier  just  at  the  junction  of  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  France, 
and  overlooks  the  river  which  rushes  past  between  the  hills  of  the 
Black  Forest  on  one  side  and  the  Jura  Mountains  on  the  other.  It 
is  a  thriving,  wealthy  town,  chiefly  of  merchants  and  bankers,  and 
has  manufactures  of  ribbons  and  paper. 

GERMANY  AND  AUSTRIA. 

These  countries  occupy  the  central  portion  of  the  continent,  between 
Russia  on  the  east,  Turkey  and  Italy  on  the  south,  France,  Belgium, 
and  Holland  on  the  west,  and  Denmark  and  the  Baltic  Sea  on  the 
north.  They  are  similar  in  productions,  condition,  language,  and 
customs,  and  have  been  politically  connected.  The  southern  part  of 
this  region  is  broken  and  mountainous,  crossed  by  ranges  of  the  Alps, 
the  Carpathian  Mountains,  and  by  shorter  ridges  which  enclose  small 
plains  or  plateaus.  Northward  the  land  descends  to  the  low,  flat 
shores  of  the  Baltic. 

All  the  most  useful  minerals,  coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and 
salt  are  abundant,  and  the  people  are  actively  engaged  in  agriculture. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Lake  Neufchatel  ?  Of  Berne  ?  Basle  ?  What  por- 
tion of  Europe  is  occupied  hy  Germany  and  Austria  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the 
country  ?    What  is  said  of  the  mineral  wealth  and  occupations  ? 


manufactures,  and  commerce.     Grain  is  produced   for  expoitation, 

vineyards  cover  the  southern  provinces,  flax  is  cultivated  everywhere, 
both  for  making  linens  and  linseed  oil,  so  generally  used  in  paints, 
and  large  quantities  of  beets  are  produced  for  the  extensive  beet- 
sugar  manufacture  of  Austria  and  Prussia.  Sheep-raising  is  also 
profitable,  and  the  fine  German  wools  are  widely  known.  Among 
the  most  important  of  the  numerous  manufactures  are  varieties  of 
linen  goods,  fine  cotton  fabrics,  woollen  dress-goods  and  broad- 
cloths, glass  and  china  ware,  wines,  beet-sugar,  beer,  hardware, 
and  soap. 

Tlio  schools  and  universities  are  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  the 
German  literature  is  rich  and  varied. 

Austria.  —  The  southeastern  portion  of  this  central  region  is 
occupied  by  the  Empire  of  Austria,  which  is  not  now  connected 
with  Germany,  but  consists  of  seventeen  provinces,  subject  to  an 
emperor  and  a  general  government  at  Vienna. 

Bohemia.  —  One  of  the  richest  of  the  provinces  is  the  quadrangular 
plateau  of  Boliemia,  in  the  northwest,  enclosed  by  the  four  ranges, 
—  Erzgebirge,  Kiesengebirge,  the  Moravian,  and  the  Bohemian 
Mountains.  The  name  is  familiar  in  connection  with  the  beautifully 
colored  Bohemian  glass-ware,  which  is  largely  exported.  The  maim- 
i.  factures  of  linens  and  damask  are  still  more  important,  employing 
over  400,000  spinners,  weavers,  and  bleachers  ;  and  Reichenberg,  in 
the  northeast,  is  the  centre  of  extensive  woollen  manufactures.  This 
one  province  contains  more  coal  than  all  the  rest  of  Austria,  an 
abundance  of  cobalt  and  the  fine  porcelain  clay  used  in  the  celebrated 
china  manufactures  of  the  neighborhood,  and  is  also  rich  in  garnets. 
Carlsbad  contains  one  of  the  most  celebrated  mineral  springs  in 
Europe.  The  water  is  hotter  than  in  any  known  spring  except  the 
geysers,  and  contains  glauber's  salt  and  carbonate  of  soda. 

Tyrol.  —  This  wild,  Alpine  province,  between  Switzerland  and  the 
highlands  of  Bavaria,  is  crossed  by  the  great  chain  of  the  Alps,  and 
its  mountains  are  covered  with  vast  glaciers  descending  far  into  the 
valleys  of  Switzerland.  The  people,  like  the  Swiss,  are  occupied 
chiefly  in  wood-carving  and  keeping  herds  among  the  mountains. 
Innsbruck,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  the  picturesque  valley  of  the 
river  Inn.  * 

Cities.  —  Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria,  and  one  of  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe,  is  situated  on  the  Danube.  It  consists  of  a  quaint, 
old,  inner  town,  with  narrow,  crowded  streets,  completely  surround- 
ed by  a  circle  of  suburbs,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  belt  or  open 
space,  once  a  part  of  the  fortifications,  but  now  covered  with  grass 
and  laid  out  in  avenues  planted  with  acacia  and  chestnut  trees. 
The  main  streets,  broad  and  straight  in  the  suburbs,  all  run  to  the 
centre  of  the  inner  city,  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  Surrounding 
the  whole  is  a  wall,  entered  by  thirteen  gates.  Unlike  other  European 
cities,  the  old  part  is  the  most  fashionable,  and  contains  the  palaces 
of  the  Emperor  and  nobility,  the  finest  churches,  and  public  buildings. 
St.  Stephen's  Cathedral  is  a  beautiful  Gothic  edifice.  Vienna  con- 
tains fine  collections  of  paintings,  and  the  medical  school  attached 
to  its  university  is  celebrated  throughout  Europe.  The  silk  manu- 
factures of  the  city  are  extensive.  Gloves  of  excellent  quality  are 
also  made  ;  and  one  of  the  flourishing  manufactures  is  that  of  meer- 
schaum pipes. 

Prague,  the  great  centre  of  commerce  in  Bohemia,  and  the  second 
city  of  Austria,  has  a  striking  appearance  on  the  sloping  banks  of  the 
Moldau,  with  its  numerous  lofty  towers,  many  palaces  and  bridges. 


Questions.  —  What  are  the  chief  products  ?  What  are  the  manufactures  ?  What 
is  said  of  Austria  ?  Of  Bohemia  ?  For  what  is  Bohemia  noted  ?  What  is  said  of  its 
minerals  ?  Of  Carlsbad  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Tyrol  ?  What  is  its  capital  ?  De- 
scribe Vienna.     Prague. 


EUROPE. 


115 


its  ancient  citadel,  and  suitouihI- 
ing    walls    and    bastions.       The 


Jews'  quarter,  oi-  Joseph's-stadi, 
as  it  is  called,  is  the  chief  busi 
ness  quarter  of  the  city.  Pestli, 
connected  by  a  magnificent  sus- 
pension-bridge with  the  old  city 
of  Buda  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  Danube,  has  an  extensive 
trade,  exports  wines,  hides,  and 
wax,  and  contains  a  large  uni- 
versity. Brunn,  a  finely  situ- 
ated, fortified  city,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  manufacturing 
places  in  Austria,  noted  espe- 
cially for  woollens.  Linz  also 
manufactures  woollens,  carpets, 
cloths,  etc.  Debreczin  is  in  an 
agricultural-  district,  and  its  cattle 
and  swine  markets  are  among  the 
most  extensive  in  Europe. 

The  German  Empire  in- 
cludes the  four  kingdoms  of  Prus- 
sia, Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and 
Saxony,  eighteen  duchies  and 
principalities,  the  three  free  cities, 
Hamburg,  Lubec,  and  Bremen, 
and  the  province  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine, recently  taken  from  France. 
These  States  are  united  in  a  Con- 
federation for  the  protection  and 

welfare  of  the  German  people.  The  direction  of  the  military  and  po- 
litical affairs  of  the  Empire  is  vested  in  the  King  of  Prussia,  who 
also  bears  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany.  Each  State  has  repre- 
sentatives, appointed  by  its  own  government,  in  a  Federal  Council, 
and  representatives,  elected  by  the  vote  of  the  people,  in  a  General 
Diet.  A  standing  army  is  maintained,  and  every  German  is  required 
to  serve  for  a  term  of  years. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  through  the  influence  chiefly  of  Martin 
Luther,  a  German  monk,  the  division  of  opinion  arose  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  which  is  known  in  history  as  the  Reformation,  and, 
in  time,  those  who  made  objections  to  the  Church  of  Rome  were 
recognized  as  Protestants.  Now  the  national  religion  of  many  of 
the  States  of  Middle  Europe  is  Protestant,  but  there  are  many  Ro- 
man Catholics,  and  all  opinions  are  tolerated. 

Education  is  very  general  throughout  Germany.  There  are  fine 
schools  and  universities  in  the  cities,  and  the  book  and  publishing 
trade  is  extensive.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  agriculture  and  mining, 
and  scientific  schools  and  libraries  are  provided  by  the  government. 

The  Country.  —  The  mountainous  provinces  of  Southern  and  Cen- 
tral Germany  are  rich  in  minerals,  and  the  forests  abound  with  deer, 
foxes,  and  rabbits.  In  the  flat  Northern  plains  wood  is  scarce,  turf 
being  often  used  for  fuel,  and  the  marshy  shores  of  the  Baltic  are 
frequented  by  storks,  wild  geese,  and  ducks.  The  eastern  part  of 
the  region  is  watered  by  the  Vistula  and  other  streams  flowing  into 
the  Baltic,  and  the  western  part  by  the  Rhine. 

The  Ilartz  Mountains,  the  most  northern  of  the  mountain-ranges. 

Questions.  —  Describe'  Pesth  and  Buda.  What  is  said  of  Brunn  ?  Of  Linz  ? 
Uebreczin  ?  What  is  included  in  the  German  Empire  ?  How  are  these  States  united  ? 
What  is  said  of  religion  ?    Of  education  ?    Of  the  country  ? 


A  mine  in  tlie  Ilartz  Mountains. 

and  the  scene  of  many  of  the  wild  legends  of  Germany,  are  especially 
rich  in  coal,  iron,  silver,  and  marble,  and  are  covered  with  forests, 
except  upon  the  higher  granite  peaks,  like  the  Brocken.  The  people 
are  almost  entirely  engaged  in  mining,  stone-cutting,  and  lumbering. 

The  forests  throughout  the  country  are  of  great  value,  and  much 
care  is  given  to  their  preservation.  "  Foresters  "  are  employed  to 
guard  them  and  to  protect  the  game  ;  but  hunting  the  chamois  on 
the  Alps  is  such  fascinating  sport  that  the  young  peasant  goes  out  at 
night  at  the  risk  of  being  shot  himself.  Lumbering  and  charcoal- 
burning  are  the  most  profitable  occupations  in  some  of  the  forest- 
regions,  and  in  many  mountain  districts  the  chief  employment  is 
sheep-raising.  The  German  wools  are  remarkably  fine  and  soft,  and 
especially  adapted  for  broadcloths,  which  are  extensively  manufac- 
tured, as  well  as  dress-goods.  The  soft  zephyr  wools,  so  generally 
used  in  fancy  work,  are  made  exclusively  in  this  country. 

Germany  is  the  great  linen-market  of  Europe.  Flax  is  cultivated 
in  all  the  provinces,  and  manufactured  into  linens,  damasks,  lawns, 
etc.,  by  the  looms  of  the  cities,  and  spun  and  woven  in  every  village. 
The  German  girl,  as  soon  as  she  can  spin,  begins  to  lay  by  a  store  of 
household  linen  which  is  to  be  her  dowry  when  she  marries. 

Wines  are  the  special  products  of  the  Rhine  provinces  in  the  South- 
west, where  the  banks  of  the  Neckar,  Moselle,  and  the  Main  are 
covered  with  vineyards  which  produce  the  light  hock  wines  so  largely 
exported.  The  mountains  of  the  Black  Forest  run  through  Baden, 
parallel  with  the  Rhine,  where  the  people  excel  in  wood-carving  and 
glass-making,    and   export  thousands   of  wooden   clocks   annually. 

Questions. —  Describe  the  Hartz  Mountain-region.  What  is  said  of  forests  ?  Of 
sheep-raising  and  wool  ?  Of  flax  and  linens  ?  Of  the  great  wine-region  ?  What 
kinds  of  wines  are  made  here  ? 


116 


OUR  WORLD. 


Here  are  numerous  mineral  springs,  and  among  others  those  of 
Baden-Baden,  which  has  become  notorious  as  the  greatest  gambling 
resort  of  Europe. 

Stuttgard  is  the  capital  of  the  neighboring  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg. 

The  Rhine,  so  celebrated  for  its  beauty,  forms  the  southern  boun- 
dary of  Wurtemberg  and  Baden,  flowing  westward  from  Lake  Con- 
stance to  Basle,  where  it  turns  northward  through  Baden  and  West 
Prussia.  Its  banks  are  covered  with  vineyards,  pretty  villages,  ruins 
of  castles,  and  fortresses.  Familiar  to  every  traveller  in  Europe  are 
the  famous  Johannisberg  vineyards,  Rheinstein,  the  beautiful  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  Prince  of  Prussia,  and  Ehrenbreitstein,  one  of 
the  strongest  fortresses  of  Europe.  Along  the  river  are  situated  the 
flourishing  cities  of  Mannheim,  Mainz,  Coblenz,  Bonn,  and  Cologne, 
the  capital  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  famous  for  its  noble  Cathedral,  and 
widely  known  for  the  cologne-water  manufactures  of  the  Farina 
family.  Dusseldorf,  noted  for  its  school  of  painting,  is  farther  down 
the  river. 


rich  in  beautiful  palaces,  historical  collections,  statues,  and  pictures, 
its  art-gallery  ranking  next  to  those  of  Dresden  and  Munich.  As  in 
many  of  the  German  cities,  a  largo  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  Jews. 

Breslau,  next  to  Berlin  the  most  populous  city  of  Prussia,  is  built 
on  both  sides  of  the  Oder,  in  the  centre  of  the  chief  manufacturing 
district  of  the  country,  and  has  an  extensive  trade. 

Dantzic,  the  port  of  the  Baltic,  is  the  chief  depot  of  the  grain-trade, 
and  its  enormous  granaries  are  built  on  an  island,  where  no  residences 
are  permitted  for  fear  of  fire.  It  is  also  noted  for  the  exportation  of 
amber,  which  is  obtained  along  the  shore  of  the  Baltic.  Stettin  and 
Konigsberg  are  important  places. 

Saxony,  south  of  Prussia,  is  rich  in  picturesque  scenery,  and  is 
famous  for  its  fine  wool  and  porcelain. 

Dresden,  the  capital,  and  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Europe,  is  sit- 
uated in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the  Elbe,  and  is  remarkable  for  beauty 
of  architecture.  It  contains  one  of  the  finest  picture-galleries  in  the 
world,  art  collections,  and  museums.  At  the  little  town  of  Meissen, 
near  by,  is  a  famous  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  china, 
equal  in  delicacy  and  beauty  of  design  to  any  in  the  world. 

Leipsic,  noted  for  type-foundries  and  lithography,  is  a  great  book- 
trade  centre.  Agents  from  all  countries  collect  here,  and  many  Eng- 
lish and  American  books  are  printed  more  cheaply  than  at  home. 

Bavaria,  a  large  kingdom,  next  in  size  to  Prussia,  may  be  called 
the  hop-garden  of  Germany,  and  is  celebrated  above  all  other  prov- 
inces for  the  manufacture  of  beer,  the  national  beverage  of  the  Ger- 
mans, whose  "beer-gardens"  take  the  place  of  the  "cafes"  of 
Prance,  and  the  "tea-gardens"  of  Japan  or  China.  Men  of  all  classes 
sit  at  the  little  tables  under  the  trees,  leisurely  smoking  and  drinking 
far  into  the  summer  nights.  The  Kissingen  Waters,  so  largely  ex- 
ported to  America,  come  from  the  mineral  spi'ings  of  Bavaria. 

Municli,  the  capital,  is  important  chiefly  as  the  royal  residence, 
and  for  its  galleries  and  handsome  public  buildings.  Nuremberg  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  of  German  cities,  with  remains  of  archi- 


Strasburg  Cathedral. 

Strasburg,  near  the  Rhine,  noted  for  its  strong  fortress  and  beauti- 
ful Cathedral,  was  taken  from  France  by  Prussia  in  1870. 

Prussia,  much  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  German 
kingdoms,  includes,  beside  these  Rhine  provinces.  East  Prussia, 
bordering  on  the  Baltic.  It  is  the  great  manufacturing  district  of 
Germany,  and  is  connected  by  railroads  with  all  parts  of  the  empire. 

Berlin-,  the  capital,  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  dreaiy  plain,  with  no 
natural  advantages,  and  yet  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  Europe,  — 

Questions.  —  Describe  the  Rhine.  Where  is  West  Prussia?  What  is  said  of 
Strasburg?    What  is  said  of  Prussia ?    Of  Berlin  ? 


View  in  Nurembprg 

tecture  of  the  Middle  Ages, — ^  picturesque  streets,  curiously  gabled 
houses,  stone  balconies,  quaint  carvings,  and  double  lines  of  fortified 
walls,  separated  by  public  walks.  Toys,  dolls,  and  wood-carving  may 
be  regarded  as  specialties  of  this  quaint  old  city,  and  are  sent  to  all 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Breslau?     Dantzic?    Where  is  Saxony?    AVhat  is 
said  of  Dresden  ?    Leipsic  ?    Describe  Bavaria.    Wliat  is  said  of  Munich  ?    Nuremberg  ? 


EUROPE. 


117 


parts  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Ratisbon,  another  ancient 
city,  with  ramparts  and  dungeons,  is  a  busy  port  on  the  Danube. 

Hamburg,  the  largest  of  the  free  cities,  is  situated  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe,  and  is  the  greatest  emporium  of  trade  on  the  continent. 
Next  to  London  it  has  the  largest  money-exchange  transactions  in 
Europe,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  ports  for  emigration  to  the  United 
States.  Among  many  important  manufactures  is  that  of  woven  em- 
broideries, which  are  largely  exported. 

Bremen,  another  of  tlie  free  cities,  stands  on  the  Weser.  It  car- 
ries on  an  immense  trade  with  the  United  States,  and  no  port  except 
Liverpool  sends  over  so  many  emigrants. 

Lubeck,  the  third  of  the  free  cities,  has  also  a  considerable  trade. 

The  important  and  interesting  cities  of  Germany  are  far  too  numer- 
ous even  to  be  mentioned,  and  it  is  only  possible  to  speak  of  the  most 
characteristic  of  the  great  variety  of  manufactures. 

THE   NETHERLANDS. 

The  region  along  the  west  coast  of  Middle  Europe,  now  known  as 
HollaTid  and  Belgium,  formerly  went  by  the  name  of  The  Netherlands 
or  Lowlands.,  Situated  on  the  borders  of  early  navigated  seas,  and 
in  a  good  central  position  for  trade,  these  countries  have  for  six 
hundred  years  been  famous  for  commerce  and  manufactures,  crowded 
with  wealthy  and  populous  cities,  and  important  in  the  history  of 
Europe.  They  formerly  belonged  to  Spain  ;  but  after  a  long  war 
for  civil  and  religious  freedom,  the  northern  portion  of  the  Neth- 
erlands became  the  independent  kingdpm  of  Holland,  and,  later, 
Belgium  also  became  independent. 

Holland.  —The  little  country  of  Holland  is  chiefly  a  flat  delta, 
formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Rhine  as  they  creep  through  the  sands 
of  the  North  Sea  shore,  which  is  so  low  that  the  inhabitants  have  a 
continual  struggle  with  the  waves  for  possession  of  the  soil. 

Dykes.  —  The  sea  is  kept  back  by  dykes,  or  immense  embankments 
of  earth,  usually  broad  enough  at  the  top  for  a  carriage-road,  and 
bordered  by.  trees,  whose  branching  roots  serve  to  hold  the  earth 
together.  The  sloping  sides  are  protected  by  wicker-work,  covered 
with  turf,  and  often  still  further  strengthened  by  a  facing  of  heavy 
stone-work,  built  at  an  immense  cost,  since  there  is  no  stone  in  the 
country  and  every  block  of  granite  must  be  brought  from  Norway. 
The  rivers,  always  subject  to  inundation,  also  require  dykes,  so  that 
the  whole  country  is  intersected  by  these  high,  narrow  roads,  with 
their  borders  of  trees.  In  spite  of  the  great  care  in  keeping  all  these 
dykes  in  repair,  disastrous  inundations  have  sometimes  occurred, 
sweeping  away  villages  and  destroying  the  crops  of  whole  provinces. 

Dunes,  or  sandhills,  similar  to  those  of  Jutland,  help  to  protect  the 
northwest  coast,  but  make  the  district  sterile  and  unprofitable. 

Canals,  crossing  this  level  country  in  all  directions,  serve  to  drain 
the  land,  and  facilitate  communication. '  In  summer  the  canal-boats, 
with  their  painted  prows,  go  gliding  about  the  country,  through  gar- 
dens, into  towns,  and  up  to  the  doors  of  houses.  In  winter,  when 
the  water  is  frozen,  sleds  are  used  for  transportation,  market-women 
skate  steadily  over  the  ice  with  baskets  of  eggs,  fowl,  or  cheese  on 
their  heads,  and  skating  is  the  favorite  pastime  of  the  young  people. 

Polders.  —  Not  only  is  this  land  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  but 
some  parts  are  considerably  below  it.  Extensive  bogs,  chiefly  in 
North  Holland,  having  furnished  peat  for  many  years,  become  seas 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Ratisbon  ?  Where  and  what  is  Hamburg  ?  Bremen  '! 
Lubee  ?  Where  are  the  Netherlands  ?  For  what  noted  ?  To  what  country  did  the 
Netherland.s  formerly  belong  ?  How  did  Holland  become  independent  ?  What  of  the 
government  of  Belgium  ?  What  is  the  surface  of  Holland  ?  What  is  said  of  dykes  ? 
Dunes  ?    Canals  ?    Polders  ? 


A  Stork. 


of  stagnant  water,  which  is  gradually  drained  off,  leaving  rich 
meadow-lands  often  twenty  feet  below  the  sea  level.  These  lands 
when  cultivated,  planted  with  trees,  and  crossed  by  canals,  are 
known  as  "polders,"  in  distinction  from  the  natural  meadows. 

Appearance  of  the  country.  —  With  its  drainage,  dykes,  canals, 
and  uniform  flatness,  Holland  is  much  like  a  methodically  laid  out 
and  admirably  kept  garden,  with  no  hills,  no  rocks,  no  forests,  the 
trees  even  planted  in  straight  rows  and  trimmed  into  green  walls. 

Grain,  flax,  and  rape-seed  for  oil,  are  the  staple  productions. 
Dutch  linen,  of  excellent  quality,  is  largely  exported.     The  greater 

part  of  the  country  is  meadow- 
land,  and  devoted  to  dairy- 
farms,  which  are  models  of  neat- 
ness and  thrift.  Butter,  cheese, 
and  eggs  are  important  exports. 
Where  the  ground  is  so  level, 
and  easily  watered  and  fertil- 
ized, gardening  is  a  profitable  oc- 
cupation, especially  the  prepara- 
tion of  garden-seeds  and  flower- 
bulbs  for  exportation.  Holland 
has  long  been  famous  for  its  tu- 
lips. The  country  is  enlivened 
by  pleasure-gardens,  in  which 
much  wealth  is  expended. 

Storks  are  held  in  great  re- 
gard in  Holland.  Their  huge 
nests  may  be  seen  perched  on 
the  roofs  of  farm-houses,  and 
even  in  towns  on  the  edges  of 
gables.  Their  coming  is  considered  a  good  omen,  and  to  kill  one  is 
almost  a  crime.  They  migrate  to  a  warmer  climate  toward  autumn, 
taking  with  them  the  young  birds  reared  during  the  summer ;  but, 
returning  in  the  spring,  seek  the  same  nests. 

Inhabitants.  —  The  people  are  industrious  and  frugal  in  their 
habits,  and  as  patriotic  and  brave  in  defence  of  their  flat  meadows 
as  the  Swiss  are  among  their  mountains.  They  have  more  than  once 
opened  the  sluices  and  let  in  the  waves  over  their  homes  and  har- 
vests, rather  than  surrender  them  to  their  foes.  They  were  among 
the  most  adventurous  of  the  early  explorers,  and  now  have  colonies 
and  trading  vessels  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  great  wealth  was  brought  into  the  country  by  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  which  carried  on  a  regular  trade  with  India. 

Cities. — These,  like  all  the  cities  of  Middle  Europe,  are  walled 
and  fortified,  and  full  of  relics,  chronicles,  legends,  and  well-filled 
picture-galleries.  A  stranger  will  find  much  in  the  streets  to  amuse 
him, — the  combination  of  canals,  bridges,  trees,  and  shipping  in  the 
heart  of  the  city,  vessels  unloading  at  the  very  doors  of  the  ware- 
houses, quaint  buildings  with  their  gable-ends  to  the  street,  and  often 
overhanging  their  foundations.  The  houses  of  the  small  towns  and 
villages  are  usually  painted  bright  blue,  red,  or  yellow. 

Amsterdam,  the  great  commercial  city  of  Holland,  stands  at  the 
junction  of  the  Amstel  with  the  Y,  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and 
is  so  much  in  the  water  that  it  is  called  the  Dutch  Venice.  Its  canals 
are  the  main  thoroughfares,  dividing  the  city  into  numerous  little 
islands,  connected  by  nearly  three  hundred  bridges. 

Rotterdam,  the  second  city  in  population  and  commerce,  is  situ- 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  appearance  of  the  country  ?  Of  the  productions  ? 
Of  dairy-farms  ?  Gardens  ?  Storks  ?  What  is  said  of  the  people  ?  What  is  said  of 
cities  ?    Of  Amsterdam  ?    Rotterdam  ? 


118 


OUR  WORLD. 


ated  on  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  and  has  almost  as  many  canals  as 
streets.  Its  foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  with  Batavia.  Not  far  from 
Rotterdam  is  the  town  of  Schiedam,  famous  for  its  distilleries  of  gin. 

The  Hague,  the  capital  of  Holland,  owes  its  importance  neither  to 
commerce  nor  manufactures,  but  to  -the  residence  of  the  Court.  Its 
picture-gallery  is  confined  mostly  to  the  works  of  Dutch  painters,  and 
contains  many  of  their  best  pictures.  Leyden,  on  the  Rhine,  is  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  distinguished  universities  of  Europe.  Haarlem,  a 
small  city,  has  long  been  famous  for  its  tulips  and  hyacinths. 

Belgium.  —  The  northern  provinces  are  only  a  continuation  of  the 
flat  farms,  canals,  and  dykes  of  Holland  ;  but  in  the  south  are  rugged 
hills,  rapid  streams,  feudal  castles,  and  dense  forests,  still  inhabited 
by  the  wolf  and  the  wild  boar.  The  remains  of  Gothic  architecture 
are  numerous  ;  yet  Belgium,  rich  in  relics  of  the  days  of  romance,  of 
mail-clad  knights  and  wild  adventure,  is  still  more  famous  for  trade 
and  manufactures.  For  several  centuries  the  Belgian  cities  were  in 
turn  the  great  commercial  and  mamrfacturing  centres  of  the  European 
world  ;  and  now,  though  larger  cities  have  grown  up  elsewhere,  the 
country  is  still  noted  for  its  looms.  The  tradespeople  and  artisans, 
no  longer  obliged  to  herd  together  for  safety  in  walled  cities,  have 
scattered  and  increased  throughout  all  Belgium,  and  the  provinces 
are  crowded  with  busy  cities  of  considerable  size,  where  carpets, 
laces,  linens,  cottons,  silks,  hardware,  and  various  other  manufac- 
tures of  the  best  quality  are  made.  Chimes  of  bells  were  invented 
in  Belgium,  and  few  towns  of  the  Netherlands  are  without  them. 

The  ancient  city  of  Bruges  ^as,  about  six  hundred  years  ago, 
the  most  wealthy  and  commercial  citj'  of  Europe,  and  its  warehouses 
contained  the  manufactures  of  India,  the  produce  of  Italy,  the  mer- 
chandise of  Germany,  wool  from  England,  silk  from  Persia,  and  the 
linens  of  Belgium.  The  famous  "  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,"  one 
of  the  orders  of  knighthood,  was  established  at  Bruges  in  compli- 
ment to  the  Flemish  weavers  who,  by  their  fine  manufactures  of 
wool,  had  increased  the  prosperity  of  the  country. 

Ghent,  after  the  decline  of  Bruges,  became  the  great  manufactur- 
ing city  of  the  age,  and  its  wealthy  burghers  boldly  resisted  the  feudal 
lords,  and  forced  from  them  rights  and  privileges  that  helped  to  better 
the  condition  of  all  the  laboring  classes.  Ghent  declined  in  its  turn, 
but  still  carries  on  considerable  manufactures,  especially  of  cotton. 

Antwerp,  a  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  Scheldt,  was  the  third 
Belgian  city  that  in  turn  became  the  commercial  centre  of  Europe. 
The  Antwerp  Cathedral  contains  Rubens's  most  celebrated  picture, 
the  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 

Brussels,  the  capital,  and  one  of  the  handsome  cities  of  Europe, 
stands  on  the  little  river  Sonne,  and  consists  of  an  upper  and  a  lower 
town.  Among  other  manufactures  are  the  Brussels  carpets  and  lace, 
known  all  over  the  civilized  world.  The  carpets  are,  however,  mostly 
made  at  Tournay,  whither  the  art  of  weaving  them  was  brought,  it 
is  said,  from  the  East  by  the  Flemish  weavers  who  were  among  the 
Crusaders.  Brussels  lace  is  remarkable  for  extreme  fineness,  and  the 
patterns  are  worked  separately  and  sewed  upon  it  with  great  care. 
The  spinners  work  in  darkened  rooms  that  their  eyes  may  be  trained 
to  make  threads  of  sufiBcient  fineness. 

The  field  of  Waterloo  is  two  hours'  drivefrom  the  city  of  Brussels. 

On  the  river  Meuse  stands  the  manufacturing  city  of  Liege,  where 
fire-arms,  machinery,  and  engines  are  made  well  and  cheaply,  owing 
to  the  abundant  supply  of  coal,  which  is  so  near  at  hand  that  some 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Schiedam  ?  The  Hague  ?  Leyden  ?  Haarlem  ? 
What  is  said  of  Belgium  ?  Of  its  cities  ?  Manufactuj-es  ?  Of  Bruges  ?  What  was 
the  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece  ?  What  is  said  of  Ghent  ?  Antwerp  ?  Brussels  ? 
Tournay  ?  How  is  the  Brussels  lace  made  ?  Where  is  Waterloo  ?  What  is  said  of 
Liege? 


of  the  galleries  of  the  mines  run  under  the  streets.     The  great  coal- 
region  around  Mens  supplies  Belgium  and  almost  all  of  Holland. 
Mechlin  and  Ypres  manufacture  lace  and  linen. 

DENMAKK. 

The  little  kingdom  of  Denmark,  comprising  the  peninsula  of  Jutland 
and  several  islands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  is  quite  insig- 
nificant in  size  ;  but,  being  surrounded  by  the  sea,  and  in  a  most  favor- 
able position  for  commerce,  it  has  attained  a  considerable  degree  of 
importance.  The  Danes  have  always  been  excellent  navigators,  and 
not  only  sail  their  own  vessels,  but  have  become  carriers  for  the  mer- 
chants of  other  nations.  Like  other  small  seaboard  nations,  the  Danes 
were  among  the  early  discoverers,  planting  colonies  in  Greenland, 
Iceland,  and  other  islands,  which  are  still  subject  to  Denmark. 

Surface.  —  The  country  is  generally  low  and  level,  consisting  most- 
ly of  moors,  heaths,  and  marshes,  relieved  by  a  few  groups  of  low, 
wooded  hills.  The  only  peculiar  feature  of  the  country  is  the  dreary, 
sterile  west  coast  of  Jutland,  where  the  shifting  sand  drifts  into  hills 
and  smothers  all  vegetation,  making  this  portion  almost  uninhabitable. 
But,  notwithstanding  the  desolation  of  the  whole  region,  a  few  frugal, 
hard-working  people  pass  their  lives  in  resisting  the  encroaching  sand, 
as  far  as  possible,  by  encouraging  the  growth  of  a  coarse,  tough 
grass,  whose  creeping  roots  serve  sometimes  to  hold  the  sand  in  place. 

Denmark  has  no  rivers  worthy  of  mention,  but  four  canals  cross  the 
country,  and  frequent  rains  and  fogs  make  the  climate  moist  and  the 
soil  moderately  productive.  Grain,  flax,  and  garden-vegetables  are 
produced,  but  only  for  homo  use  ;  and  the  chief  profit  of  the  fanners 
is  from  their  dairies,  horses,  and  cattle,  the  principal  exports  being 
butter,  cheese,  salted  beef,  and  cavalry  horses.  The  people  along 
the  sea-shore  carry  on  valuable  herring,  mackerel,  and  cod  fisheries, 
and  many  are  engaged  in  the  whale-fishery  off  Greenland. 

There  are  few  manufactures,  and  those  only  of  articles  of  daily  use. 

The  most  important  trade  is  with  England,  for  manufactured  goods, 
coal,  and  earthenware.  From  Norway  and  Sweden  are  obtained  tim- 
ber, pitch,  and  tar. 

Copenhagen,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  island  of  Zealand,  and 
consists  of  three  parts,  united  by  bridges,  and  surrounded  by  ram- 
parts and  ditches,  defended  by  bastions  and  a  strong  citadel.  The 
city  is  plainly  built,  but  makes  a  fine  appearance  from  the  sea  ;  and 
the  ramparts,  planted  with  trees,  serve  as  public  promenades. 

The  Duchies  of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenberg  were  formerly 
a  part  of  Denmark,  but  were  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1866. 

FRANCE. 

From  the  period  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  present  time,  France 
has  had  a  checkered  history.  Each  generation  since  the  great 
French  Revolution  has  witnessed  the  horrors  of  civil  w^ar  and  the 
overthrow  of  government ;  and  France  has  often  withdrawn  ex- 
hausted and  defeated  from  aggressive  wars  into  which  the  national 
ambition  for  increase  of  territory  had  led  her.  Three  times  since  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  her  capital  has  been  occupied  by  a 
foreign  army.  At  the  present  time  there  is  a  republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment ;  but  what  is  to  be  the  end  of  all  her  political  struggles  is 
still  doubtful.  Until  her  recent  war  with  Germany,  France  was  re- 
Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Mechlin  and  Ypres  ?  What  gives  Denmark  its  im- 
portance ?  How  have  the  Danes  always  been  noted  ?  What  is  said  of  the  country  ? 
What  of  the  west  coast  ?  Of  the  climate,  soil,  and  productions  ?  Exports  ?  What  is 
said  of  fisheries  ?  Manufactures  and  trade  ?  Of  Copenhagen  ?  What  duchies  for- 
merly belonged  to  Denmark  ?    What  is  said  of  the  history  of  France  ? 


EUROPE. 


119 


garded  as  the  most  powerful  and  influential  nation  in  Europe,  as  she 
is  still  one  of  the  most  populous  and  productive. 

The  country  possesses  many  natural  advantages  of  soil,  climate, 
and  surface.  Its  general  character  is  that  of  an  undulating  plain, 
occasionally  rising  into  hills  of  moderate  height,  everywhere  watered 
by  numerous  small  rivers,  and  with  no  mountains  excepting  along 
the  borders  and  two  short  ranges  in  the  southern  and  eastern 
part.  Along  the  southern  border,  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  to  the 
Mediterranean,  spreads  the  magnificent  range  of  the  Pyrenees,  with 
numerous  spurs,  forming  gorges  of  awful  grandeur  or  valleys  of  sin- 
gular beauty,  only  inferior  to  the  Alpine  scenery.  Among  the  moun- 
tains are  more  than  two  hundred  mineral  springs,  the  summer  resort 
of  invalids  and  fashionable  idlers.  This  mountain-boundary  is  pro- 
tected by  the  fortified  cities  of  Perpignan,  on  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  and 
Bayonne,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  From  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
confines  of  Germany  extends  the  impregnable  bulwark  of  the  Alps, 
the  Jura,  and  the  Vosges  Mountains.  The  Alps  culminate  in  the 
snowy  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  near  the  Swiss  border.  Almost  con- 
necting the  Pyrenees  with  the  Vosges,  and  marking  the  western 
slope  of  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Saone,  are  the  two  ranges 
known  as  the  Cevennes  and  Gote  d'Or.  These  last  ranges  form 
the  principal  watershed  of  France,  from  which  flow  westward  to 
the  Atlantic  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  and  other  rivers.  The  Rhone, 
after  flowing  through  Lake  Geneva,  enters  France  and  flows  south- 
ward to  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  rivers, 
and  by  many  persons  considered  even  finer  than  the  Rhine.  None 
of  the  French  rivers  are  navigable  by  large  vessels ;  but,  in  con- 
nection with  the  numerous  canals  which  intersect  the  country,  they 
are  much  used  for  the  transportation  of  lumber  and  other  mer- 
chandise 

'In  spite  of  the  productiveness  of  Prance,  much  of  the  soil  is  poorly 
adapted  to  cultivation,  and  the  traveller  across  the  spongy  marshes 
around  Calais,  the  dreary  and  monotonous  wastes  of  the  Landes,  the 
sandy  deserts  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  rocky  and  parched 
hillsides  of  Languedoc  finds  it  difiicult  to  realize  the  great  resources 
of  the  country. 

The  common  grains  form  the  chief  products,  and  beets,  Indian 
corn,  hemp,  flax,  madder,  and  many  other  agricultural  products  are 
also  extensively  cultivated.  Truffles,  edible  mushrooms,  which  are 
regarded  as  a  great  delicacy,  abound  in  the  oak  and  chestnut  woods 
of  the  southern  part.  They  grow  underground,  and  are  hunted  for 
with  trained  dogs  or  pigs,  by  whom  their  faintest  odor  is  perceived. 
Of  all  the  exports,  none  is  equal  in  value  to  wine,  of  which  more 
than  nine  hundred  millions  of  gallons  arc  produced  annually. 

Most  of  the  common  minerals  are  found  to  some  extent,  the  prin- 
cipal ones  being  coal  and  iron.  The  production  of  coal  is,  however, 
far  less  than  the  wants  of  the  country,  and  large  quantities  are  im- 
ported from  Great  Britain  and  Belgium  ;  and  the  iron  mines,  being 
at  a  distance  from  the  coal,  are  of  comparatively  little  value.  Gran- 
ite, marble,  freestone,  and  slate  are  abundant.  Along  the  marshy 
shores,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bordeaux  and  of  Cette,  are 
numerous  salt-ponds,  and  the  immense  piles  of  salt  made  from  them 
look  at  a  distance  like  great  sand-hills. 

Silk  is  the  most  important  manufacture,  but  there  are  also  woollen. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  present  government  ?  Of  her  position  among 
European  nations  ?  What  of  the  country  ?  Of  the  Pjwenees  ?  What  fortresses  guard 
the  southern  boundary  ?  What  mountains  on  the  eastern  border  ?  What  ranges  form 
the  principal  watershed  ?  What  rivers  flow  westward  from  it  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Rhone  ?  Of  water-transportation  through  the  country  ?  What  parts  of  France  are 
unproductive  1  What  are  the  chief  productions  1  Minerals  f  What  is  said  of  the 
manufactures  ? 


cotton,  and  linen  manufactures  of  great  value,  and  in  the  working  of 
leather  and  the  metals  the  French  artisans  have  an  acknowledged 
superiority.  No  manufacture  is  more  general  than  that  of  laces, 
and  in  many  villages  the  women  and  children  may  be  seen  with  their 
bobbins  at  every  cottage  door.  The  French  tapestry  and  porcelain 
have  a  world-wide  reputation  for  beauty  of  design. 

France  may  be  divided  by  climate  and  productions  into  four  re- 
gions, —  the  southeastern,  or  silk-region  ;  the  claret-wine  and  maize 
region  of  middle  France  ;  north  of  this  the  champagne  district ;  and 
the  northwest  coast-region,  where  the  vine  gives  place  to  the  apple, 
and  cider  is  a  common  beverage  of  the  people,  as  wine  is  in  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  parts. 

The  southeastern  or  Mediterranean  region  produces  the  fig,  the 
mulberry,  and  the  orange  ;  and  throughout  Languedoc  the  traveller 
sees  the  olive-tree  with  its  foliage  looking  as  if  thickly  covered  with 
ashes.  Lyons,  the  chief  city  of  this  region  and  the  second  city  of 
France,  is  the  centre  of  the  silk  manufacture.  The  weavers  form  a 
large  part  of  its  population,  occupying  almost  the  whole  of  its  largest 
suburb.  The  city  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Saone,  and  its  busy  shops  are  filled  with  the  exquisite 
products  of  its  native  industry.  It  contains  many  fine  specimens  of 
architecture,  and  in  front  of  its  City  Hall  is  a  beautiful  fountain,  a 
copy  of  which  was  placed  on  the  Common  in  Boston  a  few  years  ago. 
Next  in  importance  to  Lyons  is  Marseilles,  on  the  Mediten-anean. 
It  was  formerly  a  filthy  maritime  city,  through  which  travellers  for 
Italy  and  the  East  hurried  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  which  served 
as  an  open  gateway  for  the  introduction  into  Europe  of  the  plague, 
the  cholera,  and  other  epidemics ;  but  it  has  been  greatly  improved, 
and  is  now  a  clean  and  beautiful  city,  with  broad  streets  and  avenues, 
and  many  new  and  stately  edifices.  Founded  by  Greek  colonists 
from  Asia  Minor  about  600  B.  C,  it  has  always  been  an  important 
commercial  place.  Toulon  is  the  strongly  fortified  naval  station  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Nice,  on  the  coast,  near  the  Italian  frmtier,  is 
much  frequented  on  account  of  its  mild  climate  and  beautiful  scenerj^ 
Among  the  cities  of  this  southern  region  are  Toulouse,  whose  shops 
rival  in  brilliancy  those  of  Paris,  and  which  still  retains  the  honor- 
able distinction  of  being  one  of  the  most  cultivated  cities  of  France  ; 
Carcassonne,  the  most  remarkable  example  of  a  fortified  city  of  the 
Middle  Ages  now  remaining  in  France,  some  parts  of  its  fortifica- 
tions having  been  built  by  the  Romans,  and  every  century  having 
added  something ;  Cette,  where  arc  the  largest  salt-works  in  the 
country,  and  which  is  also  noted  for  the  fabrication  of  spurious 
wines  ;  Nismes,  which  contains  the  most  perfect  Roman  amphitheatre 
now  remaining ;  Aries,  also  famous  for  its  Roman  antiquities,  and 
connected  with  the  opposite  bank  of  tlie  Rhone  by  a  curious  bridge 
of  boats ;  and  Avignon,  which  was  for  nearly  seventy  years  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Popes. 

The  wine  and  maize  region  is  north  of  the  region  just  described, 
extending  from  Bordeaux  to  the  Swiss  border,  including  the  vine- 
yards of  the  Cote  d'Or  in  Burgundy  and  those  of  the  lower  Garonne. 
From  its  proximity  to  this  claret  region,  Bordeaux  is  the  chief  place 
for  the  export  of  wine.  Prunes  are  another  special  export.  The  city 
is  situated  on  the  Gironde,  the  name  given  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
Garonne,  and  is  only  inferior  in  importance  to  Marseilles  as  a  sea- 
port. The  traveller,  on  approaching  it,  is  reminded  at  once  of  Liver- 
pool or  London  by  the  forest  of  masts  in  its  capacious  harbor.  Span- 
ning the  river  is  a  bridge  of  seventeen  arches,  regarded  as  one  of  the 

Questions.  —  Into  what  four  regions  may  France  be  divided  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  southeastern  1  Of  Lyons  ?  Of  Marseilles  ?  What  is  said  of  other  citie*  of  this 
region  f    What  is  said  of  the  wine-region  f    Of  Bordeaux  ? 


122 


OUR  WORLD. 


most  magnificent  in  Europe.  Bordeaux  is  important  as  a  railway 
centre,  and  is  connected  with  the  Mediterranean  by  a  canal. 

South  of  Bordeaux  extend  the  Landes,  flat,  sandy  barrens,  aflford- 
ing  scanty  pasturage  for  sheep,  and  where  the  shepherds  walk  on 
stilts  through  the  thorny  furze  and  heaths  that  cover  the  dreary 
plain. 

Dijon,  the  ancient  capital  of  Burgundy,  contains  numerous  quaint 
mediaeval  buildings,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Charles  the  Bold,  the 
most  famous  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy. 

The  champagne  district  takes  in  the  famous  vineyards  of  the  valley 
of  the  Marne,  where  the  grapes  are  small  and  sweet,  and  are  used 
for  the  sparkling  champagne  wines. 

Paris.  —  Just  below  the  junction  of  the  Marne  with  the  Seine  is 
Paris,  the  capital  of  France  and  the  most  beautiful  cii-y  in  the  world. 
It  was  originally  built  on  a  small  island  in  the  Seine,  from  which 
it  has  spread  in  every  direction  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  its 
most  famous  boulevards  are  built  on  what  were  once  the  walls  of 
the  city.  These  boulevards  are  broad  streets,  planted  with  trees, 
with  broad  walks  of  asphalt,  and  brilliantly  lighted  at  night.  Along 
many  of  them  are  cafes,  in  front  of  which  are  ranged  tables  and 
chairs,  where  the  gay  Parisians,  who  are  very  fond  of  an  out-door 
life,  sit  and  chat,  and  drink  their  coffee  and  other  beverages.  The 
great  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  one  of  the  mos^..  beautiful  in 
France,  is  on  the  island  in  the  Seine.  The  Madeleine  and  many  of 
the  other  churches  are  also  very  beautiful.  The  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  are  among  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  palace  of  the 
Tuileries,  which  was  burned  by  the  Communists,  was  the  favorite 
residence  of  Napoleon  III.,  as  it  had  been  of  his  predecessors  for 
centuries  before.  He  had  connected  it  with  the  palace  of  the  Louvre 
by  a  series  of  magnificent  buildings,  extending  in  an  unbroken  line 
of  nearly  half  a  mile  in  length.  In  the  Louvre  is  a  famous  collection 
of  paintings  and  sculpture,  beside  an  immense  number  of  specimens 
of  ancient  art.  Paris  offers  rare  opportunities  to  the  student,  who 
can,  in  the  midst  of  all  the  gayety  and  love  of  show,  find  advantages 
unsurpassed  by  any  other  city.  The  principal  library,  which,  like 
most  other  public  institutions  of  Paris,  changes  its  name  with  each 
new  revolution,  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  there  are  many  smaller 
ones  which  are  open  both  to  citizens  and  strangers. 

At  Sevres,  six  miles  from  Paris,  are  the  celebrated  porcelain  man- 
ufactures, and  a  museum  of  earthenware  and  china  containing  speci- 
mens of  all  tim's  and  nations.  Nantes,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Loire, 
is  a  beautiful,  thriving  town.  Orleans,  farther  up  the  river,  and 
Rouen,  on  the  Seine,  are  inseparably  associated  with  the  name  of 
Jeanne  Dare.  Rouen  also  has  important  manufactures  of  cottons 
and  merinoes.  Rheims  has  a  fine  cathedral,  and  is  the  city  where 
the  French  kings  were  formerly  crowned.  Versailles,  a  few  miles 
from  Paris,  was  the  favorite  residence  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  contains 
a  very  extensive  palace  and  gardens.  In  the  palace  is  one  of  the 
largest  collections  of  pictures  in  the  world. 

Brittany  and  Normandy.  —  Along  the  northwest  coast  lie  these 
strongly  contrasted  provinces.  The  rugged  peninsula  of  Brittany  ex- 
tends into  the  Atlantic  with  its  stormy  coast  of  bare  moors  and  heaths. 
The  rude  peasants,  with  their  broad-brimmed  hats  and  long  flowing 
hair,  still  retain  their  old  legends  and  superstitions.  Normandy  is 
one  of  the  pleasantest  parts  of  France,  fair  and  green  with  meadows, 
orchards,  cornfields,  and  wooded  dells.  Calais,  on  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  is  the   principal   port   for   steamers   between   England   and 


Questions.— What  is  said  of  the  Landes?  Dijon?  What  of  the  champagne 
distiict  ?  Describe  Paris.  What  is  said  of  Sfevres  1  Of  other  cities  of  this  region  ? 
Of  Normandy  and  Brittany  ?    Of  Calais  ? 


France.  Havre  is  the  port  of  Paris,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine. 
Lille,  near  the  Belgian  border,  manufactures  fine  thread  for  gloves, 
stockings,  and  lace.  Cherbourg,  on  the  English  Channel,  and  Brest, 
on  the  Atlantic,  are  important  naval  stations. 

SUMMARY. 

Middle  Europe  includes  Switzerland,  Austria,  Germany,  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Denmark. 

The  shores  of  the  North  and  Baltic  Seas  are  low  and  flat ;  the  rest 
of  the  country  is  mountainous,  well  wooded,  and  richly  supplied  with 
minerals. 

The  greater  part  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  agriculture,  min- 
ine-,  and  manufactures,  though  those  of  the  seaboard  countries  are 
chiefly  occupied  in  commerce  and  fisheries,  and  those  among  the 
mour'tains  in  lumbering  and  sheep-raising. 

The  important  products  are  grain,  flax,  hemp,  hops,  beets,  mad- 
der, and  garden-seed  ;  and  in  the  southern  provinces  grapes. 

The  manufactures  and  exports  are  chiefly  linens,  woollens,  silks, 
fine  cotton  fabrics,  threads  and  laces,  glass  and  china  ware,  wood- 
carving,  toys  and  fancy  goods,  clocks,  watches,  jewelry,  mathemati- 
cal and  other  instruments,  wines,  brandy,  beer,  and  gin. 

The  imports  are  raw  cotton,  dyestuffs,  and  colonial  produce,  in- 
cluding coffee,  sugar,  spices,  tea,  etc. 

The  peasants  of  the  difi"erent  provinces  have  diflferent  costumes, 
which  have  been  preserved  for  generations. 

In  the  cities,  the  remains  of  Gothic  architecture  and  fortifications, 
and  the  narrow,  crooked  streets  and  gabled  houses  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  are  contrasted  with  broad  new  avenues,  modern  buildings, 
and  ru,mparts  turned  into  public  promenades.  The  cities  are  also 
noted  for  fine  picture-galleries,  art-collections,  and  excellent  schools 
and  universities. 

The  principal  cities  are  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  Lyons,  Brussels, 
Munich,  Dresden,  Copenhagen.  Some  of  the  most  frequented  ports 
are  Bordeaux,  Havre,  Calais,  Amsterdam,  Bremen,  Hamburg,  Dant- 
zic,  Marseilles,  and  Trieste. 

STUDY  OF  THE  MAP  OP  CENTRAL  EUROPE. 

Switzerland  has  the  ranges  of  the  Alps  in  its  southern  part,  and  the  Jura 
Mountains  on  its  western  border.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by?  North? 
East?     South?     What  lakes  on  its  borders  ?     What  lakes  in  the  interior?     The 

principal  rivers  are  the  R e  and  the  R e,  which  rise  in  the  Alps  and  flow  ? 

The  A r  is  a  branch  of  the  R e.     Where  is  Basle  situated  ?     Berne  ? 

Zurich  ?     Lucerne  ?     Geneva  ? 

Austria  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  S d,  B a,  and  S y ;  on  the  north 

by  P a  and  R a ;  on  the  east  and  south  by  T y  ;  and  has  a  coast  line 

on  the  A c  Sea.     What  mountains  in  the  south  ?     In  the  northeast  ?     Around 

Bohemia  ?  Describe  the  course  of  the  Danube.  What  are  its  principal  branches  ? 
W  --e  is  Vienna  situated  ?    Prague  ?    Pesth  and  Buda  ?    Trieste  ?    Innsbruck  ? 

Germany  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  F e,  B m,  and  H d  ;  on  the 

north  by  the  N h  Sea,  D    — k,  and  B c  Sea ;  east  by  R a ;  south  by 

A a  and  S d.     Where  are  the  Hartz  Mountains?     The  Black  Forest? 

What  rivers  flow  into  the  Baltic  ?  Into  the  North  Sea?  Where  are  the  Mo- 
selle, Neckar,  and  Main?  The  Isar?  Spree?  The  largest  of  the  German 
kingdoms  is  Prussia,  consisting  of  East  Prussia  bordering  on  the  Baltic  and  West 
Prussia  on  the  Riiine,  partly  separated  by  small  Duchies.  Where  are  Baden 
and  Wurtemberg  ?  Bavaria  ?  Saxony  ?  The  other  small  German  States  lie 
between  Prussia  and  Bavaria,  and  along  the  north  coast  Where  is  Berlin  situ- 
ated? Dantzic?  Frankfort?  Magdeburg?  Cologne?  Mannheim?  Coblenz? 
Dusseldorf?     Bonn?     Where   is   Nuremberg?     Ratisbon  ?     Munich?     Augt- 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Havre  I    Of  other  cities  I 


EUROPE. 


123 


burg  ?  Where  is  Hamburg  ?  Bremen  ?  Lnbeck  ?  Hanover  ?  Stuttgard  ? 
Ulm  ?     Heidelberg  ?     Dresden  ?     Leipsic  ?     Weimar  ?     Carlsruhe  ?     Baden  ? 

France  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  ?    Separating  it  from  ?    Northeast  by  ? 

East  ?     South  ?     West  ?     It  has  a  coast  line  on  ?     It  is  separated  from  I y 

by  the  Alps,  from  S d  by  the  Jura  Mountains,  and  from  S n  by  the  Pyr- 
enees. Tlie  Cevennes  and  Cote  d'Or  Mountains  run  north  and  south,  leaving  a 
Ion"-,  narrow  valley  for  the  Rhone,  and  serve  as  a  watershed  for  the  rivers  flow- 
ing westward  into  the  E h  C 1  and  Bay  of  B y.     These  rivers  are  ? 

What  province  borders  on  the  English  Channel?  Which  forms  a  peninsula 
between  the  English  Channel  and  Bay  of  Biscay  ?     Where  is  Champagne  1 

What  are  the  wine  provinces  ?     Tlie  principal  ports  are  C s  on  ?     H e 

on  ?     N s  on  ?      La  R e  on  ?      B x   on  ?     M s   on  ?     Where 

is  Paris  ?  Lille  ?  Valenciennes  ?  Drjon  ?  Versailles  ?  Rouen  ?  Cherbourg  ? 
Brest  ?  Epernay  ?  Rheims  ?  Soissons  ?  Domremy  ?  Nismes  ?  Tours  ? 
Poitiers  ?  Toulouse  ?  Bayonne  ?  Perpignan  V  Pau  ?  Cette  ?  Toulon  ? 
I/yons  ?     Nice  ? 

Belgium.  —  Boundaries.  —  Northwest  ?  North  ?  East  ?  Southwest  ? 
What  is  the  course  of  the  Meuse?  Scheldt?  Where  is  Brussels?  Ghent? 
Antwerp  ?     Bruges  ?     Mons  ?     Ostend  ?     Liege  ? 

Holland.  —  Boundaries.  —  South?  East?  North  and  west  a  coast  line 
on  ?  The  chief  indentation  is  the  Zuyder  Zee.  Holland  is  crossed  by  the  Lower 
Rhine,  which  forms  a  delta.  The  Scheldt  empties  into  the  North  Sea  near  the 
lioundary  between  Belgium  and  Holland.  Where  is  Amsterdam  ?  Rotterdam? 
Hague  ?     Utrecht  ?     Leyden  ?     Haarlem  ?     Groningen  ?     Schiedam  ? 

Denmark  consists  of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  the  island  of  Zealand,  and  other 
smaller  islands.  What  German  province  bounds  Jutland  on  the  south  ?  What 
water  on  the  west  ?  What  strait  separates  it  from  Norway  ?  From  Sweden  ? 
Where  is  Copenhagen  ?     Elsinore  ? 

THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS. 

[Refer  to  Map  on  page  128.] 

The  British  Empire  includes  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
Land,  formerly  separate  kingdoms  ;  extensive  foreign  dominions  in 
America,  India,  and  Australia;  and  numerous  islands  in  different 
iiarts  of  the  world. 

Though  Scotland  and  England  occupy  the  same  island,  all  at- 
tempts to  force  a  political  union  were  in  vain.  The  two  countries 
had  separate  monarchs  until,  at  the  death  of  Queen  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land, the  Scottish  king,  who  was  the  heir  to  the  English  throne, 
hecame  also  king  of  England,  and  the  two  kingdoms  were  amicably 
united  under  one  general  government.  Ireland,  on  the  contrary, 
was  conquered  by  the  English ;  but  the  people  have  never  become 
reconciled  to  the  loss  of  their  independence,  and  the  rise  and  sup- 
pression of  repeated  insurrections  have  tended  to  increase  the  ill-will 
between  the  two  nations. 

The  government  of  Great  Britain  is  a  limited  monarchy,  vested  in 
a  King  or  Queen  and  a  Parliament  composed  of  two  houses,  —  the 
House  of  Lords,  an  hereditary  assembly,  and  the  House  of  Commons, 
an  elective  assembly. 

In  England  and  Ireland  the  established  church  is  the  Protestant 
Episcopal,  or  Church  of  England,  though  in  Ireland  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  predominates.  In  Scotland  the  established  church 
is  the  Presbyterian. 

Great  Britain  is  the  largest  commercial  nation,  and  its  numerous 
manufactures  are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  earth.  Many  of  its 
foreign  imports  are  supplied  by  its  own  colonies.  It  is  like  a  minia- 
ture world,  with  its  varied  natural  features  and  resources,  —  its 
mountain-ranges  abounding  in  coal,  iron,  and  other  minerals ;  its 
picturesque   lake-districts  ;   its   grazing-lands   and  finely  cultivated 

Queationa.  —  What  does  the  British  Empire  include  ?  How  were  England  and 
Scotland  united  ?  What  is  said  of  Ireland  ?  What  is  the  government  of  Great 
Britain  ?    What  is  said  of  the  religion  ?     Of  the  commercial  importance  ! 


farms  ;  its  fens,  bogs,  and  chalk-cliffs  ;  and  its  crowded  manufactur- 
ing cities. 

The  seas  around  the  British  Islands  abound  with  herring,  mackerel, 
and  other  fish,  and  the  fisheries  are  of  immense  importance.  Yar- 
mouth in  England  and  Wick  in  Scotland  are  the  great  centres  of  the 
herring-fisheries,  and  beside  the  thousands  of  men  employed  in 
catching,  salting,  and  transporting  herrings,  the  neighboring  popu- 
lation is  engaged  in  barrel-making,  boat-building,  rope-works,  and 
other  trades  supported  by  the  fisheries.  Many  people  find  occupa- 
tion in  gathering  and  burning  the  immense  quantities  of  sca-weod 
cast  ashore  along  these  coasts,  the  ashes  of  which  are  of  consider- 
able importance  in  glass-making  and  other  manufactures.  Along 
the  coast  the  peasant  lads  and  their  loaded  donkeys  may  be  seen 
toiling  up  the  cliffs  by  the  narrow,  winding  paths. 

Some  parts  of  the  eastern  shore  of  the  island-kingdom  are  bor- 
dered by  marshes,  but  the  coasts  are  generally  bold  and  rocky,  worn 
into  caverns  and  rugged  chasms  by  the  furious  beating  of  the  waves, 
and  obstructed  by  rocks  and  islands.  Precipitous  headlands  alter- 
nate with  deep  inlets,  which  are  most  numerous  in  Scotland,  where 
they  are  called  firllis  or  friths,  and  serve  as  safe  anchorage  for  ves- 
sels from  the  stormy  waters  outside.  Many  legends  and  historical 
associations  are  connected  with  these  headlands  and  islands,  and 
among  the  interesting  natural  features  are  the  singular  basaltic 
rocks  of  Giants'  Causeway,  off  the  north  coast  of  Ireland,  and  Fin- 
gal's  Cave,  off  the  west  coast  of  Scotland. 

England.  —  The  characteristic  features  of  English  scenery  are 
meadows,  lanes,  and  hedges,  clusters  of  yew  and  holly-trees,  bare  heath- 
moors,  picturesque  glens  covered  with  golden  gorse,  stone  cottages 
with  thatched  roofs,  ancient  abbeys  overgrown  with  ivy,  and  the  old 
"  baronial  halls  "  surrounded  by  ample  grounds  and  parks  wooded 
with  oaks  of  a  hundred  years.  These  large  estates,  entailed  upon 
the  oldest  son  from  generation  to  generation,  are  safe  from  the  en- 
croachments of  the  busiest  manufacturing-regions. 

Southern  England.  —  In  the  southeast  of  England  is  the  beautiful 
county  of  Kent,  with  its  farm-houses,  country-seats,  and  villages, 
scattered  among  towering  oaks  and  yews,  and  with  large  tracts 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  hop-vines.  On  the  south  shore  rise 
conspicuous  white  chalk-cliffs,  and  quarries  and  lime-kilns  abound  in 
this  district.  West  from  Dover  extend  the  dunes,  or  sand-hills, 
known  as  the  "  South  "Downs."  Along  this  southern  coast  are  some 
of  the  principal  ports  and  naval  stations  of  England.  Plymouth 
contains  large  dockyards,  and  Devonport,  near  by,«  has  one  of  the 
finest  arsenals  in  the  world.  The  promontory  of  Portland  Bill  is 
famous  for  its  quarries  of  building-stone.  Portsmouth,  the  chief 
naval  port,  opposite  the  Isle  of  Wight,  is  a  favorite  summer  resort. 
Brighton,  Ramsgate,  and  Margate  are  seaside  resorts  for  the  London- 
ers ;  and  Dover,  opposite  Calais,  is  the  nearest  point  to  the  French 
coast.  Through  the  southeast  of  England  flows  the  Thames,  with 
its  immense  traffic,  and  the  approach  to  the  metropolis  on  its  banks 
is  a  continuous  mass  of  shipping,  steamers,  black  coal-barges,  and 
tow-boats. 

The  great  city  of  London,  on  the  Thames,  60  miles  from  the  sea, 
has  drawn  one  suburb  after  another  within  the  limits  of  its  crowded 
thoroughfares  and  its  restless  motion,  until  no  brief  description  of  it 
is  possible,  and  we  can  only  notice  some  of  the  most  important 

Questions.  —  Why  is  Great  Britain  a  miniature  world  ?    What  is  said  of  the 

fisheries  ?  Of  sea-weeds  ?  Describe  the  coasts.  What  interesting  natural  features 
are  mentioned  ?  What  are  the  characteristic  features  of  England  ?  How  are  the 
large  estates  preserved  ?  What  is  said  of  Kent  ?  What  and  where  are  the  dunes  ? 
What  is  saii  of  the  ports  and  naval  stations  of  the  southern  coast  ?  What  seaside 
resorts  ?    What  is  said  of  Dover  ?     Of  the  Thames  ?    Of  London  ? 


124 


OUR  WORLD. 


buildings  and  associations.  Among  the  numerous  bridges  that 
cross  the  Thames  are  London  Bridge,  Blackfriars  and  Westminster 
Bridges  ;  and  the  Thames  Tunnel  forms  a  passage  under  the  river 
twelve  hundred  feet  long.  The  Strand,  Cheapside,  and  Holborn  as 
thoroughfares  of  traflSc,  and  Regent  Street  and  Pall  Mall  as  fash- 
ionable promenades,  are  familiar  to  all.  Hyde  Park,  St.  James's 
Park,  and  the  Zoological  Gardens  are  the  most  popular  places  of 
resort.  Among  the  principal  public  buildings  are  St.  Paul's  Church  ; 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  the  Kings  of  England  are  crowned  and 
where  her  great  men  are  buried  ;  the  Tower  of  London,  with  its 
historical  associations  ;  the  Temple  Churcli ;  and  the  New  Parliament 
Houses.  Among  the  oldest  landmarks  is  Temple  Bar,  the  last  re- 
maining gateway  of  the  original  city.  The  British  Museum  contains 
one  of  the  largest  libraries  and  most  varied  collections  in  the  world, 
comprising  specimens  of  natural  history_^_the  Elgin  marbles,  sculp- 
tures and  bas-reliefs  from  Nineveh,  etc. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  London  are  Greenwich  with  its  observatory, 
whence  time  and  longitude  are  calculated  for  the  world  ;  Eton,  with 
its  celebrated  school  for  boys  ;  Windsor,  with  the  magnificent  royal 
castle  ;  Richmond,  a  beautiful  town  on  the  Thames,  six  miles  above 
London,  with  villas,  cottages,  and  green  lawns  reaching  to  the  river  ; 
and  Epsom,  the  great  racing-ground  of  England.  Racing  is  a  national 
amusement,  and  on  the  day  of  the  great  Derby  stakes  London  is 
deserted,  and  for  hours  there  is  a  continuous  stream  of  carriages, 
carts,  vans,  and  vehicles  of  every  description  along  the  road  to 
Epsom.  Shops  are  closed,  the  benches  of  Parliament  deserted,  and 
people  of  all  conditions,  and  from  various  districts,  collect,  until  the 
Downs  are  covered  with  a  vast  moving  mass.  Farther  up  the  Thames 
stands  the  venerable  town  of  Oxford,  with  its  massive  university- 
buildings  and  quiet  shades. 

Near  the  mouth  of  tlie  Severn  is  Bristol,  formerly  a  place  of  ex- 
tensive commerce,  now  a  populous,  manufacturing  city,  with  fash- 
ionable watering-places  in  its  suburbs. 

The  long  southwestern  peninsula  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  is 
one  of  the  great  mining-regions  of  Great  Britain.  The  tin-mines  of 
Cornwall  were  known  to  the  ancients,  and  still  supply  the  greater 
part  of  the  tin  used  in  Europe  and  America. 

Wales.  —  Li  the  west  of  England  extends  the  wild,  mountainous 
country  of  Wales,  crossed  by  the  Cambrian  ranges.  The  Welsh 
people,  long  an  isolated  race  in  these  inaccessible  mountains,  were 
with  difficulty  brought  under  the  English  rule,  and  still  retain  in 
some  measure  their  language  and  customs.  Coal,  iron,  copper,  and 
slate  abound.  The  Welsh  flannels  are  widely  known.  Merthyr 
Tydvil,  the  largest  town,  is  surrounded  by  foundries  and  furnaces. 

Manufacturing  District.  —  All  the  central  and  eastern  parts  of 
England  form  one  great  manufacturing  region.  -Leicester  is  the  centre 
of  a  fine  agricultural  and  wool-raising  district.  Wool-combing  and 
dyeing  and  woollen  manufactures  are  extensively  carried  on.  Kid- 
derminster has  lo)ig  been  famous  for  carpets.  Birmingham  is  famous 
for  its  immense  rolling-mills,  foundries,  and  iron  manufactures  of  all 
kinds,  unsurpassed  by  any  in  the  world.  Nottingham  is  chiefly  cele- 
brated for  its  bobbinet  laces,  and  hosiery.  SheflSeld  is  noted  for  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  cutlery  and  steel,  including  springs  for  watches. 
Leeds  and  Bradford  form  the  great  centre  of  the  trade  in  woollen 
goods,  especially  broadcloths.  Worsted  yarn  and  many  varieties  of 
worsted  fabrics,  mohair,  alpaca,  lama,  etc.,  are  sent  from  these  cities 


Questions.  —  What  are  the  principal  buildings  ?  What  is  said  of  the  British 
Museum  ?  "WHiat  of  places  near  London  ?  Of  the  Derby  races  ?  Of  Oxford  ?  Of 
Bristol  ?  'What  is  said  of  Cornwall  ?  Of  Wales  ?  Where  is  the  manufacturing  dis- 
trict?   What  is  said  of.  Leicester?    Of  other  manufacturing  towns  ? 


to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Manchester,  the  great  cotton-manufac- 
turing centre,  is  within  an  hour's  railroad  travel  of  Liverpool,  and 
carries  on  an  immense,  trade,  importing  raw  cotton  and  shipping 
manufactured  goods.  Indirectly  connected  with  the  cotton-weaving 
are  dye-v^orks,  chemical  works,  etc.  Numerous  other  manufacturing 
towns,  less  widely  known,  export  silks,  linens,  threads,  earthenware, 
plate,  etc. ;  and  the  rich  agricultural  and  grazing  tracts  of  this  dis- 
trict supply  the  markets  of  the  crowded  populations. 

Liverpool  is  the  great  western  port,  situated  on  the  river  Mersey, 
and,  owing  to  its  extensive  trade  with  America,  is  almost  equal  in 
commercial  importance  to  the  capital.  A  magnificent  system  of 
docks  extends  for  five  miles  along  the  river.  Hull,  an  important 
port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  takes  much  of  the  trade  with 
Northern  Europe. 

North  England.  —  The  Cheviot  Hills,  on  the  Scotch  border,  and 
.the  Pennine  ranges  spread  over  the  northern  counties,  forming  in 
the  west  the  beautiful  lake-region,  with  its  wooded  liills,  thickets 
of  hazel  and  willow,  and  with  Windermere,  Derwent  Water,  and 
other  charming  little  sheets  of  water.  In  the  east  is  the  busy  iron 
and  coal  region  around  Newcastle,  where  the  first  form  of  railroad 
was  attempted  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  the  coal.  The  coal- 
beds  seem  to  be  inexhaustible,  and  such  immense  quantities  are  con- 
tinually mined  that  coals  and  Newca,stle  have  become  proverbially 
associated. 

Scotland.  —  As  in  England,  castles,  ruins,  and  battle-fields  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  the  past  are  found  on  all  sides.  The 
names  of  Melrose  Abbey,  Roslin  Castle,  Flodden  Field,  and  Ban- 
nockburn  will  live  as  long  as  English  literature  lasts. 

The  surface  of  Scotland  is  for  the  most  part  broken  and  mountain- 
ous, and  toward  the  north  very  bleak  and  bare.  It  produces  the 
hardier  grains,  oats  and  barley,  and  is  generally  suited  for  grazing 
rather  than  agriculture.  The  southern  and  southeastern  counties, 
bordering  upon  England,  are  known  as  the  Lowlands,  and  all  the 
western  and  northern  country  is  occupied  by  the  Highlands,  cele- 
brated for  their  romantic  pcenery  of  mountains,  lakes,  and  heath- 
covered  moors,  and  with  many  interesting  associations.     Formerly 

these  Highlands  were  inhabited  by 
various  "clans,"  each  with  its  own 
chieftain,  whose  name  was  borne 
by  the  clansmen,  and  to  whom  they 
rendered  hearty  allegiance  in  all 
feuds  and  warfare.  And  though 
these  clans,  Campbells,  Stuarts, 
McGregors,  etc.,  wore  often  at 
deadly  strife  among  themselves, 
they  all  united  against  the  English 
and  the  Lowlanders,  who  inclined 
to  more  peaceable  English  customs. 
The  sound  of  the  bagpipe  no 
longer  calls  warlike  clans  from 
their  mountain  fastnesses,  and  dis- 
tinctions of  language,  dress,  and 
manners  have  almost  ceased,  ex- 
cept among  tlie  shepherds  on  the 
upland  moors.  But  the  Highland- 
ers are  still  fond  of  a  military  life, 
A  iiightander.  ^ud   many  of  them  join   the  Eng- 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Liyerpool?  Hull  ?  Of  North  England  ?  Of  the 
coal-region  ?  Mention  some  places  of  Scotland  having  historical  associations.  De- 
scribe the  surface  of  Scotland.     What  is  said  of  the  Highlanders  ? 


EUROPE. 


125 


lish  army,  and  form  some  of  its  finest  regiments,  retaining  as  uniform 
their  national  costume,  a  short  kilt,  or  skirt  of  plaid,  half-hose  leav- 
ing the  knees  bare,  a  flat  cap  with  plumes,  and  a  plaid,  or  "tartan," 
worn  around  the  body,  the  members  of  each  clan  being  recognized 
by  the  colors  of  their  plaid.  Inverness,  the  capital  of  the  Highlands, 
is  at  one  extremity  of  the  Caledonian  Canal,  which  extends  across 
the  island  from  Moray  Firth  to  Loch  Linnhe.  Balmoral  Castle,  one  of 
the  favorite  residences  of  Queen  Victoria,  is  in  this  Highland  region. 

The  Lowland  counties  are  the  best  cultivated  and  richest  in  Scot- 
land. There  is  a  large  trade  in  live  stock,  and  the  Ayrshire  dairies 
are  among  the  finest  in  the  world.  Owing  to  the  inexhaustible 
fields  of  coal  and  iron  and  the  great  water  facilities,  the  manufac- 
tures in  the  vicinity  of  the  Clyde  are  scarcely  inferior  in  extent 
and  importance  to  those  of  England.  Glasgow,  on  the  Clyde,  is 
the  first  manufacturing  city  of  Scotland,  containing  more  than 
400,000  inhabitants.  Cottons,  woollens,  silks,  carpets,  glass  and 
pottery,  chemicals,  and  machinery  of  all  kinds  are  manufactured 
here,  and  bleaching-fields  and  dye-works,  including  those  for  the 
famous  Turkey-red,  spread  over  the  suburbs.  A  great  number 
of  women  from  the  neighboring  villages  are  employed  in  the 
embroidery  of  muslins.  Paisley  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of 
shawls  in  imitation  of  those  from  India.  Dundee,  the  second  city  in- 
commercial  importance,  manufactures  linens  largely,  and  consumes 
an  immense  amount  of  India  jute,  used  for  matting,  bagging,  etc. 
It  is  also  noted  for  confectionery.  One  firm  alone  is  said  to  use  150 
tons  of  bitter  oranges,  annually,  for  marmalade.  Dunfermline  makes 
the  finest  damasks.  Aberdeen,  beside  considerable  manufactures,  ex- 
ports fine  granite,  used  in  London  and  other  cities. 

Snuff-making  is  a  specialty  of  Scotland.  Large  quantities  of  snuff 
are  consumed  in  the  country  as  well  as  exported,  and  two  or  three 
towns  are  supported  by  the  manufacture  of  boxes  alone.  There  are 
large  distilleries,  and  the  Glenlivet  whiskey  is  known  far  and  wide. 
Fisheries  are  a  source  of  great  wealth,  and  the  broad  heath-moors  of 
the  Highlands  are  profitably  rented  by  the  season  to  English  sports- 
men in  search  of  good  grouse-shooting. 

Edinburgh,  the  beautiful  capital  of  Scotland,  is  celebrated  for  its 
romantic  scenery,  literary  interests,  and  great  facilities  for  study. 
Among  the  places  of  attraction  are  the  Castle,  Holyrood  Palace,  and 
Arthur's  Seat,  a  lofty  summit  commanding  a  fine  view- of  the  city. 

IRELAND. 

Ireland  is  especially  open  to  the  warm  winds  and  currents  which 
moderate  the  temperature  of  Western  Europe,  and  its  mild  climate 
and  green  hills  have  given  it  the  name  of  the  "  Emerald  Isle."  There 
are  no  regular  mountain-ranges,  nor  extensive  highlands,  like  those 
of  Scotland,  but  the  scenery  of  the  wild  west  coast  district  is  romantic 
and  picturesque,  and  the  beautiful  lakes  of  Killarney  have  been  much 
visited  by  tourists.  The  ivy-covered  ruins  of  castles  and  abbeys  are 
as  interesting  as  those  of  England,  and  in  elegance  of  architecture 
and  beauty  of  parks  and  squares  the  larger  cities  are  not  inferior. 
But  the  dwellings  of  the  laboring  classes  are  less  neat  and  comfortable 
in  appearance,  and  in  many  districts  the  poverty  of  the  peasants  is 
apparent  in  the  thatched  hovels,  with  no  other  floor  than  the  hardened 
earth. 

Though  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  agriculture  is  very  defective. 

Questions.  —  What  is  their  costume  ?  What  and  where  is  the  capital  of  the 
Highlands  ?  What  are  the  resources  of  the  Lowland  counties  ?  What  is  said  of  Glas- 
gow ?  Of  other  manufacturing  towns  ?  Of  snuff-making  ?  Fisheries  ?  Hunting  ? 
Of  Edinburgh!  What  is  said  of  the  climate  of  Ireland?  Of  the  character  of  the 
country  ?    Of  ruins  and  castles  ?     Of  the  cottages  of  the  poor  ? 


owing  to  the  want  of  capital,  bad  management,  and  the  absence  of 
many  large  landhold&rs,  who  prefer  to  reside  in  London.  The  pecu- 
liar conformation  of  the  island,  with  a  border  of  coast-highlands  and 
a  lower  inland  country,  prevents  a  good  natural  drainage  ;  and,  the 
annual  rain-fall  being  unusually  large,  water  collects  in  the  lowest 
levels,  forming  extensive  bogs  unfit  for  cultivation.  Flax  is  the 
staple  production  of  the  country,  and  Irish  linens  are  largely  ex- 
ported. When  the  flax  is  cultivated  for  the  seed  it  is  thinly  planted  ; 
but  when  the  fibre  is  wanted  the  seeds  are  thickly  sown,  and  the  long, 
thin  stems  are  pulled  up  while  young.  These  are  bound  in  sheaves 
and  soaked  in  streams  until  the  fibres  can  be  loosened  from  the  pith 
and  bark.  They  are  then  cleaned  and  sent  to  the  manufacturing 
towns  to  be  spun  and  woven.  One  town  excels  in  the  manufacture 
of  damask,  another  makes  the  best  lawns  and  cambrics,  and  still 
another  the  heavy  linens.  _ 

Rich  grazing-lands  on  the  Shannon  produce  excellent  butter  and 
cheese.  Potatoes  form  the  principal  food  of  the  mass  of  the  people, 
and  a  failure  of  the  crop  sometimes  causes  the  greatest  distress. 
Turf,  supplied  in  large  quantities  from  the  bogs  characteristic  of 
Ireland,  is  one  of  the  chief  resources,  being  used  extensively  for 
fuel.  A  stranger  is  struck  with  the  great  number  of  persons  engaged 
in  cutting  it  and  stacking  it  for  drying. 

Dublin,  the  capital,  with  its  magnificent  bay,  handsome  park,  mas- 
sive buildings,  spacious  squares,  and  beautiful  environs,  is  one  of  the 
most  delightful  capitals  of  Europe.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  circular 
road  of  nearly  nine  miles  in  length,  which  forms  a  favorite  walk  and 
drive.  It  is  not  remarkable  as  a  manufacturing  or  commercial  port, 
but  the  celebrated  Irish  poplins  are  manufactured  here.  Cork  is 
partly  built  on  an  island  in  the  river  Lee,  which  opens  into  a  fine  bay 
and  harbor,  and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery.  It  exports 
grain,  provisions,  and  linens.  Belfast,  the  first  commercial  city  of 
Ireland,  is  noted  for  its  extensive  exportation  of  linens,  and  its  fine 
harbor  is  continually  filled  with  shipping.  Limerick,  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal ports  for  American  trade,  manufactures  linens,  guipure  laces, 
and  the  soft,  fine  gloves  for  v^ich  it  has  long  been  noted.  Other  im- 
portant trading  or  manufacturing  towns  are  Galway,  in  the  wild  west 
country,  Bandon,  Drogheda,  Dundalk,  and  Londonderry.  Balbriggan, 
on  the  cast  coast,  manufactures  fine  hosiery. 

Islands.  —  The  Orkneys  are  a  group  of  quite  large  islands,  north  of 
Scotland,  most  of  which  rise  in  high,  bold  cliffs  on  the  west,  and  slope 
eastward  into  pastures  and  arable  lands,  which  produce  small  crops 
of  grain.  The  people  depend  chiefly  on  their  cattle  and  fisheries. 
Though  the  climate  is  mild  for  the  latitude,  the  general  appearance  of 
the  country  is  dreary  and  forbidding ;  and  in  the  long  winter  nights 
it  is  dark  more  than  eighteen  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four.  Violent 
storms  prevail,  winds  and  waves  beat  against  the  cliffs  with  terrific 
fury,  and  the  grain  is  often  spoiled  by  the  spray  of  the  sea  dashing 
over  the  fields.  There  are  no  forests,  and  the  inhabitants  depend  upon 
the  drift-wood  cast  ashore  by  the  currents  for  building-material  and 
for  fuel. 

The  Shetland  Islands,  farther  north,  arc  like  the  Orkneys  in  cli- 
mate, surface,  and  condition.  The  precipitous  cliffs  of  both  groups 
are  frequented  by  myriads  of  sea-fowl ;  and,  beside  fishing  and  cattle- 
raising,  many  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  the  dangerous  occupation 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  agricultural  condition  ?  What  is  the  chief  production  ? 
How  is  tlie  flax-fibre  obtained  ?  What  are  some  of  the  different  linen-manufaetures  ? 
What  other  products  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  turf !  Describe  Dublin. 
What  special  manufacture  has  it  ?  What  is  said  of  Cork  ?  Limerick  ?  Belfast  ? 
Mention  other  towns.  What  is  said  of  the  Orkney  Islands  ?  Of  their  climate  ?  How 
are  fuel  and  buUding-material  obtained  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Shetland  Islands  ?  Of 
bird-catching  ? 


126 


OUR  "WORLD. 


Bird-catching. 

of  obtaining  down,  feathers,  and  eggs.  The  nests  are  in  the  inac- 
cessible crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  the  fowler  is  let  down  by  a  rope 
from  the  top  of  the  cliff.  Fatal  accidents  often  occur.  The  sturdy 
little  Shetland  ponies  are  widely  known. 

The  Hebrides,  a  group  of  nearly  five  hundred  islands  off  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland,  are  many  of  them  uninhabitable  rocks.  Only  a 
small  portion  of  the  surface  is  fit  for  cultivation,  and  the  rest  consists 
of  poor  pasture-lands,  morasses,  lakes,  sands,  and  rock.  The  larger 
islands  are  rugged  and  mountainous,  and  the  scenery  grand  and  pic- 
turesque. The  little  island  of  Staffa  contains  the  remarkable  basaltic 
cavern  known  as  Fingal's  Cave. 

The  Isle  op  Man,  in  the  Irish  Sea,  long  an  independent  kingdom, 
and  interesting  historically,  is  valuable  for  its  iron  and  copper 
mines  and  extensive  fisheries,  employing  three  or  four  thousand 
men. 

Anglesea,  separated  from  North  Wales  by  the  Menai  Strait,  is  also 


Queattons.  — "What  is  said  of  the  Shetland  ponies?    Of  the  Hebrides?    Of  the 
Isle  of  Man  ?    Of  Angleaea  ? 


rich  in  minerals,  and  has  valuable  fisheries.  It  contains  some  of  the 
oldest  ruins  of  the  Druids. 

The  Scilly  Islands  are  a  group  of  small,  barren  islands,  inhabited 
by  rougli  fishermen. 

The  Isle  of  Wight,  off  the  south  shore  of  England,  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort,  and  is  covered  with  beautiful  villas  and  cottages. 

The  Channel  Islands  (see  pp.  120,  121),  namely,  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
A.LDEBNEY,  and  some  smaller  islands,  now  subject  to  England,  for- 
merly belonged  to  Franco,  and  contain  a  considerable  French  popu- 
lation, who  still  retain  their  language,  churches,  and  schools.  The 
mrface  is  varied,  and  tlie  scenery  striking  and  beautiful.  The  larger 
islands  produce  fruits  and  flowers  in  great  perfection,  which  are  sent 
in  large  quantities  to  the  London  and  Paris  markets.  Fresh  fish 
are  also  sent  to  these  markets.  The  islands  are  finely  adapted  for 
cattle-raising,  and  the  Alderney  cows  are  remarkable  for  their  small, 
symmetrical  forms  and  rich  milk.  The  preparation  of  sea-weed  for 
making  glass,  soap,  and  iodine  is  an  important  occupation.  The 
towns  are  usually  neat  and  pleasant. 

Heligoland,  a  small  island  in  the  North  Sea,  belongs  to  Great 
Britain.     (See  map  on  pages  120,  121.) 

COLONIAL  POSSESSIONS. 

In  the  "Western  Hemispheke.  —  British  America,  Balize,  Bermuda  Islands,  The 
Bahamas,  Jamaica,  Barbadoes  and  other  small  "West  India  Islands,  British  Guiana, 
Falkland  Islands. 

In  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  —  Heligoland,  Gibraltar,  Malta,  Sierra  Leone  and 
other  "West  African  Settlements,  Cape  Colony  and  Natal,  St.  Helena  Island,  Ascension 
Island,  Mauritius  Island,  British  India,  Ceylon,  Singapore,  Hong  Kong,  part  of  Bor- 
neo and  Labuan  Island  near  by,  Australia,  Norfolk  Island,  Netv  Zealand. 

SUMMARY. 

The  British  Empire  consists  of  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land, and  various  foreign  possessions.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  sovereign  and  a  Parliament  of  two  houses.  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, though  long  united  with  England,  retain  some  peculiarities  of 
language,  manners,  and  costume. 

Great  Britain  ranks  as  one  of  the  leading  European  countries,  pos- 
sesses a  large  navy  and  standing  ai-my,  an  immense  commerce,  and 
has  colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  supplying  the  products  of 
every  climate. 

The  people  are  engaged  in  all  the  usual  occupations  of  civilized 
life,  —  in  agriculture,  including  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  and  dairies ; 
in  manufactures  of  every  description,  cottons,  woollens,  linens,  silks, 
laces,  ironware,  cutlery,  earthen,  glass,  and  china-ware  ;  and  in  min- 
ing. The  great  mining-regions  are  the  coal  and  iron  regions  of 
South  Scotland,  Northeast  England,  and  Wales,  and  the  tin  and 
copper  region  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire.  In  the  interior  of  Eng- 
land is  the  clay  and  pottery  region  of  Staffordshire. 

The  characteristic  vegetation  consists  of  oaks,  yew-trees,  holly, 
hazel-bush,  willow,  and  heath.  The  cultivated  products  are  chiefly 
grain  and  flax. 

The  special  characteristics  of  England  are  the  chalk-clifls  and 
downs  along  the  south  shore,  fine  meadows  and  woodlands,  pic- 
turesque thatched  cottages,  ivy-covered  abbeys  and  churches,  and 
hereditary  mansions  and  parks.  The  principal  cities  are  London, 
Liverpool,  Manchester,  Sheffield,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  Portsmouth, 
Bristol,  etc. 

Ireland  excels  in  the  cultivation  of  flax  and  the  manufacture  of 


Questions.  —  "What  is  said  of  the  Scilly  Islands  ? 
islands  in  the  English  Channel  belong  to  England  ? 
tion  ?  Surface  ?  Productions  ?  Cattle  ?  Sea-weeds  ? 
are  the  Colonial  Possessions  ? 


Of  the  Isle  of  Wight  ?  "Wliat 
What  is  said  of  their  popula- 
Where  is  Heligoland  ?    What 


EUROPE. 


127 


linens,  which  are  exported  chiefly  from  Belfast.  Extensive  bogs  fur- 
nish peat  for  fuel.  The  peasantry  depend  for  support  chiefly  on  the 
potato  crop.  The  most  important  cities  are  Dublin,  Cork,  Belfast, 
Limerick,  and  Galway. 

Scotland,   rugged   and   mountainous,    produces   chiefly  oats   and 


barley.     It  is  celebrated  for  fine  mountain  and   lake  scenery,   for 
extensive  heath-moors,  and  for  interesting  stories  of  the  Highland- 
ers.    The  manufacture  of  iron  and  cloths,  and  ship-building  are  ex- 
tensively carried  on  in  the  coal  and  iron  district  of  the  Clyde. 
The  chief  cities  are  Edinburgh,  Glasgow.  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen. 


[Take  the  Study  of  the  Map  of  the  British  Islands  here.     (See  page  129.)] 


NOETHEElsT    EUEOPE. 

[Eefer  to  Map  of  Europe,  page  111.] 


NORWAY  AND   SWEDEN. 

Norway  and  Sweden  occupy  the  long,  rugged  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula which  is  connected  with  Kussia  by  the  rocky  hills  of  Lapland. 
A  mountain-range  runs  through  its  whole  length,  sloping  suddenly 
on  the  Norway  side  to  a  steep,  rugged  coast,  gashed  by  numerous 
fiords,  or  deep,  narrow  bays,  and  fringed  by  thousands  of  small 
islands.  The  slope  eastward  is  much  more  gradual,  and  the  coast- 
lands  of  Sweden  are  low  and  often  marshy.  These  Swedish  low- 
lands are  monotonous  in  appearance,  but  in  Norway  the  scenery  is 
wild  and  picturesque,  with  moimtains,  ravines,  and  glaciers.  Nu- 
merous streams  flow  from  the  mountains  on  both  sides.  Those  of  Nor- 
way are  mostly  torrents  from  the  upper  crags,  brightening  the  dark 
fir-forests,  while  those  of  Sweden  are  longer,  though  not  navigable. 

Arctic  snows  and  ice  are  to  be  found  in  the  extreme  north,  the 
bays  from  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  northward  freeze  hard  in  the  keen  cold 
of  the  long  winters,  and  sledges  are  the  only  means  of  travelling. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  influence  of  winds  and  currents  from  the 
Atlantic,  the  temperature  is  higher  than  in  many  places  of  the  same 
latitude.  The  harbors  along  the  coast  of  Norway  are  rarely  blocked 
with  ice,  and  the  grass  on  the  islands  remains  green  until  late  in  Decem- 
ber. Yet  one  is  reminded  of  the  latitude  by  the  long  winter-nights  and 
twilights.  At  Stockholm  the  shortest  days  of  midwinter  are  scarcely 
more  than  six  hours  in  length,  and  the  daylight  perceptibly  decreases 
northward.  At  Pitea,  latitude  64°,  the  Deceinber  sun  does  not 
come  more  than  8°  above  the  horizon,  and  the  day  is  only  four  or  five 
hours  long.  Sunrise  merges  into  sunset  without  a  noon,  —  a  long 
morning  twilight,  a  few  low,  short  beams  on  the  house-tops  for  an 
hour  or  two,  and  the  evening  twilight  at  three  in  the  afternoon. 

At  Tornea,  the  frontier  town  on  the  borders  of  Lapland,  the  Decem- 
ber sun  but  just  comes  above  the  horizon,  sheds  a  pale  orange  light, 
and  disappears.  In  June,  on  the  the  contrary,  Tornea  has  very  long- 
days.  Parties  from  Stockholm  make  summer  excursions  northward 
to  behold  the  wonderful  spectacle  of  a  midnight  sun.  The  idea  of  the 
long  polar  night  is  more  terrible  than  the  reality,  since  the  brilliant, 
ever-varying  tints  of  the  long  twilight  are  unsurpassed  by  any  Italian 
sunset,  and  the  magnificent  Noithern  Lights  flashing  across  the  sky  in 
golden  streamers,  or  gleaming  for  hours  in  a  dazzling  crown  of  light, 
give  the  night  a  gorgeous  brightness. 

Occupation  and  resources.  —  The  greater  part  of  Norway  and 
Sweden  is  covered  with  forests,  chiefly  of  birch  and  pine,  though 
large  tracts  in  the  north  are  barren  and  rocky.  Comparatively  little 
land  is  under  cultivation,  and  the  small  farms  produce  scarcely  flax 
and  grain  enough  for  home  use.  The  cities,  villages,  and  farms  are 
chiefly  in  the  more  populous  southern  provinces.  In  Sweden  the 
wooden  cottages,  roof  and  all,  are  of  a  dull  red  color. 

Questions.  —  Describe  the  surface  of  Norway  and  Sweden.  The  climate.  What 
is  said  of  midwinter  at  Stockhohn  ?    At  Pitea  ?    At  Tornea  ?    What  spectacle  may  be 


The  frugal  and  industrious  people  cultivate  their  little  store  of 
flax,  grain,  and  vegetables  during  the  short  summer,  some  farms 
producing  enough  to  send  supplies  to  the  nearest  market-towns. 
Little  boats  are  commonly  used  to  carry  produce  down  the  numer- 
ous streams,  unfit  for  any  other  navigation,  and  the  Swedish  peas- 
ant-girl handles  the  oar  as  skilfully  as  the  spindle.  In  the  long 
winter-twilights  the  peasants  spin  and  weave  their  own  linen  and 
stout  woollen  cloth. 

Many  parts  of  the  country  which  are  unfit  for  cultivation  make 
good  pasture-lands,  and  sheep-raising  is  often  more  profitable  than 
farming,  though  the  wool  is  coarse  and  not/much  is  exported.  A 
large  part  of  Norway  is  fit  only  for  grazing,  and  along  the  coast  the 
cattle  or  sheep  are  taken  to  the  islands  during  the  summer,  that  they 
may  consume  the  fine  crops  of  grass  that  grow  there. 

The  real  wealth  of  the  country  is  obtained  from  its  numerous  mines 
of  copper,  silver,  and  especially  iron,  which  give  occupation  to 
thousands  of  people.  The  great  mining-region  extends  across  Swe- 
den in  the  neighborhood  of  the  lakes,  including  the  famous  forests  of 
Dalecarlia  ;  but  valuable  mines  arc  worked  throughout  the  country. 
The  want  of  coal  would  be  a  drawback  to  the  mining,  if  the  immense 
pine-forests  did  not  furnish  abundant  fuel  for  smelting-furnaces.  In 
many  inland  places,  where  there  are  no  means  of  transporting  lumber, 
the  fine  old  trees  are  valuable  only  for  this  purpose,  or  for  making 
charcoal  and  tar.  The  iron  of  Sweden  is  considered  the  best  in  the 
world  for  making  steel,  and  a  large  quantity  is  sent  to  England  an- 
nually to  supply  the  cutlery  factories  of  Sheffield.  Quarries  of  fine 
granite  and  porphyry  are  also  worked,  and  are  scarcely  less  impor- 
tant than  the  mines. 

Whenever  lumber  can  be  transported  to  the  coast,  the  inexhaustible 
forests  furnish  excellent  timber,  and  there  is  considerable  ship-build- 
ing along  the  shore,  especially  at  the  little  town  of  Gefle. 

The  fisheries  of  Norway  and  Sweden  are  among  the  most  valuable 
in  the  world,  and  perhaps  even  more  people  are  employed  in  this 
business  than  in  mining.  The  streams  are  abundantly  stocked  with 
trout  and  salmon,  thousands  of  boats  are  engaged  in  the  herring  and 
cod  fisheries,  and  fishing-hamlets  and  drying-sheds  are  scattered 
about  the  bays  and  coves.  The  cod-fisheries  of  the  Loflbden  Islands 
are  famous  far  and  near.  The  channels  along  the  Norway  coast  are 
filled  with  vessels  bound  for  the  Bergon-markot  and  freighted  with 
salt-fish,  packed  around  the  masts  like  huge  haystacks. 

Sweden  has  furnished  her  share  of  literary  men  to  the  world,  and 
there  are  more  than  fourteen  hundred  students  at  the  University  of 
Upsal,  the  burial  place  of  Linnseus,  the  botanist. 

seen  in  June  ?  What  is  said  of  the  long  polar  night  ?  Of  productions  ?  Of  the  vil- 
lages and  people  ?  How  do  the  peasants  transport  their  produce  ?  What  is  their  oc- 
cupation during  the  long  winter-twilights  ?  What  is  said  of  grazing  ?  What  is  the 
chief  wealth  of  the  country  ?  Where  is  the  mining-region  ?  What  is  said  of  mining  ? 
Of  ship-building  ?    Of  fisheries  ?    Of  Upsal  ?  , 


EUROPE. 


129 


STUDY  OF  THE  MAP  OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.. 

The  British  Islands  lie  between  the  50th  and  60th  parallels,  in  the  same  lati- 
tude with  Labrador  on  the  American  coast,  yet  the  temperature  of  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  is  so  modified  by  winds  and  currents  that  little  snow  falls 
in  the  southern  parts  of  England  and  Ireland,  and  the  winter  is  generally  mild. 
The  islands  are  surrounded  by  waters  connected  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean.     The 

northern  portions  of  England  and  Ireland   are  separated  by  the  I h  Sea, 

Ireland  and  Scotland  by  the  North  Channel,  Wales  and  Ireland  by  St.  G 's 

Channel,  England  and  France  by  the  E h  Channel  and  Strait  of  D r. 

Englaind  and  Scotland  are  separated  from  the  continent  of  Europe  by  the 
N h  Sea. 

The  principal  indentations  of  the  coast  of  Scotland  are  M y  Firth,  Firths 

of  T y  and   F h,   S y  Firth  and   Firth   of  C e.     Of  England 

and  Wales,   the  W h,   B 1  Channel,   and   C n   Bay.      Of  Ireland, 

D k,  B y,  D e  G y,  and  D 1  Bays. 

The  coasts  are  fringed  with  smaller  islands,  many  of  them  bare  rocks,  but  some 
of  considerable  size,  especially  the  O y  and  S d  Islands  north  of  Scot- 
land ;  the  H s,  separated  from  its  west  coast  by  the  M h  Channels ;  and 

the  large  but  barren  islands  farther  south.     The  Isle  of  M n  is  in  the  Irish 

Sea ;  A a  is  separated  from  Wales  by  M i  Strait ;   the  S y  Islands 

are  a  barren  group  off  Land's  End,  and  the  Isle  of  W 1  is  off  the  south  shore. 

The  most  prominent  headlands  of  Scotland  are  Cape  W h  and  D y 

Head;   of  England,  F h  Head  and  L 's  End;   of  Wales,   St.  D 's 

Head ;  of  Ireland,  Cape  Clear,  W w  Head,  M n  Head,  E s  Head, 

and  D e  Head. 

Scotland  contains  mountainous  highlands  in  the  west  and  north,  and  is  crossed 

by  the  G n  Hills,  the  highest  peak  of  which  is  Ben  N s.     Among  the 

mountains  are   Loch   L d   and    other    lakes.      The   larger  rivers   are   the 

C-^ — e,  flowing?  and  the  T d,  F h,  and  T y,  flowing?     The  smaller 

picturesque  streams  are  the  Ayr,  Doon,  Spey,  Don,  and  Dee. 

Cities.  —  E h,  the  capital,  on  the  Forth ;  G w  on  the  Clyde ;  P y 

near  by ;  D e  and  P h  on  the  Tay ;  A n  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don  and 

Dee  ;  W k  on  the  northeast  coast ;  I s  and  I y  among  the  Highlands. 

Englcind  is  mountainous  in  the  north  and  west.     The  ranges  are  the  C 1 

Hills  and  P e  Mountains.     The  C n  Mountains  are  in  Wales.     Mount 

Snowdon  is  the  highest  peak  in  Great  Britain.     The  chief  rivers  are  the  T s, 

H r,  and  T e,  flowing  ?     The  A n,  S — — n,  and  M y,  flowing? 

Cities.  —  L n,  the  capital,  G h,  E n,  W r,  R d,  O d, 

on  or  near  the  Thames ;  B 1  and  B h  near  the  mouth  of  the  S n ; 

P h,  P d,  S n,  P h,  B n,  D r,  on  the  south  shore ;  M e, 

y h,  H 1,  N e,  on  the  east  coast ;  Y k,  L s,  B d,  M r, 

S d,  N m,  L r,  B m,  in  the  northern  and  middle  counties  ;  and 

L 1  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey. 

Ireland  is  broken  and  rugged  in  the  west,  without  connected  mountain- 
ranges.     The  longest  river  is  the  S n,  flowing  ? 

Cities.  —  L y,  in  the  north,  B 1,  D k,  D a,  B n,  D n, 

the  capital,  on  the  oast  coast ;  W d,  Q n,  C k,  B n,  K y  in  the 

south  ;  L k  and  G y  on  the  west  coast. 

Norway  and  Sweden  form  one  kingdom,  but  each  country  has  its 
separate  government  and  capital. 

Cities.  —  Stockholm,  the  handsome  little  capital  of  Sweden,  stands 
in  the  most  picturesque  part  of  the  lake-region.  The  city  proper  is 
built  on  three  islands  in  the  Millar  Lake,  and  connected  with  the 
suburbs  by  magnificent  granite  bridges.  Gottenberg,  the  second 
city  in  size,  has  a  largo  trade,  chiefly  with  England.  Christiania,  the 
capital  of  Norway,  is  a  pleasant  city  with  wide  streets  and  modern 
houses,  much  like  an  American  town,  and  surrounded  by  beautiful 
suburbs,  with  the  great  fiord  vanishing  to  the  southward.  Bergen,  a 
[uaint  old  town,  is  the  chief  commercial  city  and  naval  station,  and 
famous  for  its  large  fishing-trade.  There  are  not  many  towns  or  vil- 
lages in  Norway,  and  the  whole  country  is  so  rugged  and  mountain- 
Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  government  ?  Of  Stockholm  f  Of  Gottenberg  ? 
Christiania  ?    Bergen  ? 


ous  that  there  is  scarcely  a  good  road  even  between  Christiania  and 
Bergen.  Hammerfest,  one  of  the  chief  fishing-stations,  is  the  most 
northern  town  in  the  world. 

The  Norsemen.  —  Norway  and  Sweden,  together  with  Denmark, 
were  known  as  Scandinavia,  the  country  of  the  hardy  Norsemen,  who 
became  the  terror  of  all  the  surrounding  nations.  Here  were  the 
Vikings,  or  Sea-kings, — bold  pirates  who  sailed  the  northern  seas  in 
search  of  plunder,  and  thought  it  great  honor  and  glory  to  seize  their 
neighbors'  lands.  The  adventures  of  the  Sea-kings  form  the  Scandi- 
navian mythology,  collected  in  the  Eddas.  We  have  in  our  own  lan- 
guage names  derived  from  their  fables  and  stories,  as  Wednesday,  or 
Woden's  day  ;  that  is,  the  day  sacred  to  their  chief  god,  Odin  or  Wo- 
den. From  the  name  of  his  wife,  Frega,  we  have  Friday ;  and  from 
Thor,  their  god  of  war,  Thursday.  Their  idea  of  eternal  punishment 
was  not  of  a  fiery  hell,  but  of  an  everlasting  freezing  torture,  since 
in  their  climate  they  had  associated  suffering  with  cold  and  not  with 
heat.  These  fierce,  restless  warriors  could  imagine  no  happiness  in 
idle  repose ;  their  paradise,  or  Valhalla,  was  some  future  home  for 
the  brave,  where  inexhaustible  armies  of  enemies  were  to  be  pro- 
vided for  them  to  slay. 

ICELAND. 

Long  ago,  when  the  old  Norsemen  sailed  the  northern  seas,  some  of 
them  made  their  way  westward  with  a  few  sheep  and  cattle,  and  set- 
tled on  the  rocky,  barren  island  of  Iceland.  There  they  made  laws 
for  themselves,  according  t6  their  ideas  of  freedom  and  justice,  and 
established  a  hardy,  independent  community.  They  continued  to 
prosper,  received  in  time  the  teachings  of  Christianity  from  Europe, 
had  such  schools  and  churches  as  belonged  to  the  period,  and  a  liter- 
ature of  their  own,  consisting  chiefly  of  eddas,  or  heroic  poems,  tell- 
ing the  bold  adventures  of  their  ancestors,  the  Vikings.  These 
Icelanders  sent  out  fishing  and  exploring  expeditions  as  far  even  as 
Greenland,  and  are  supposed  to  have  visited  the  shores  of  New  Eng- 
land long  before  it  was  settled  by  the  English. 

In  those  early  times,  when  the  wants  of  people  were  few  and  sim- 
ple, the  Icelanders  were  not  behind  the  Europeans  in  civilization. 
But  England  has  opened  her  stores  of  coal  and  iron,  lighted  her  fur- 
nace-fires, and  set  in  motion  her  vast  factories  ;  Ireland  has  produced 
abundant  flax  on  her  green  fields,  and  spun  linen  for  half  the  world  ; 
and  Norway  and  Sweden  have  put  to  use  their  wealth  of  forests  and 
mines.  Iceland,  meanwhile,  though  larger  than  Ireland,  remains  as 
it  was,  its  few  natural  resources  being  insufficient  to  purchase  a 
greater  degree  of  comfort  or  refinement  for  its  people.  In  the  last 
hundred  years  terrible  volcanic  eruptions  and  famines  have  greatly 
lessened  the  number  of  inhabitants,  who,  after  a  hard  struggle  to  keep 
their  independence  as  a  nation,  have  become  subject  in  a  measure  to 
the  Danish  government,  which  appoints  a  governor,  but  interferes 
little  with  the  affairs  of  the  island. 

Surface.  —  The  interior  of  the  island  is  a  vast  desert  of  volcanic 
mountains,  lava,  and  glaciers,  uninhabited  and  almost  impassable. 
The  habitable  coasts  consist  of  marshes,  scanty  grass-pastures,  and 
tracts  of  stunted  birches.  Here  the  Icelanders  build  their  houses, 
collect  the  rank  grass  for  their  sheep  and  cattle,  and  in  the  most 
favorable  spots  cultivate  a  few  vegetables.     No  grain  will  ripen  in 


Questions.  —  What  did  Scandinavia  include  ?  Who  were  the  Norsemen  ?  The 
Vikings  ?  What  are  the  Eddas  ?  What  words  of  our  language  come  from  the  stories 
of  the  Norsemen  ?  AVhat  was  their  idea  of  future  punishment  ?  How  was  Iceland 
settled  ?  What  is  said  of  the  early  settlers  ?  Of  their  literature  ?  What  early  ex- 
ploring expeditions  from  Iceland  ?  Wliy  have  not  the  Icelanders  kept  up  with  the 
European  nations  in  civilization  ?  What  is  the  present  government  of  tlie  island  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  interior  of  the  island  ?    Of  the  coasts  ?    Of  the  productions  ? 


130 


OUR  WORLD. 


their  short  summer.  The  stunted  birches  are  only  useful  for  fuel, 
but  large  quantities  of  drift-wood,  cast  ashore  by  the  Gulf  Stream  and 
the  northern  current,  supply  building-material  for  houses  and  boats. 

Mount  Hecla,  the  principal  volcano,  stands  amid  a  number  of  other 
volcanoes,  active  or  extinct,  and  there  are  evidences  of  many  former 
eruptions  all  over  the  island.  Immense  streams  of  lava  have  over- 
flowed the  country  in  all  directions,  reaching  even  to  the  sea-shore, 
where  they  are  sometimes  partially  grown  over  with  grass.  In  parts 
of  the  active  volcanic  region  the  soft  earth  quakes  beneath  the  feet, 
or  is  too  hot  to  be  walked  upon.  There  are  numerous  mud-vol- 
canoes, or  mounds  of  hot,  bluish  mud,  emitting  dense,  sulphurous 
vapors. 

Geysers.  — These  hot  springs  are  among  the  natural  curiosities  of 
the  world,  and  seem  the  more  wonderful  in  this  polar  region.  The 
"  Great  Geyser  "  is  a  cone  with  a  large  crater,  in  which  the  water  is 
continually  boiling.  About  once  in  twenty-four  hours  columns  of 
steam  and  water  are  sent  forth  with  a  tremendous  explosion,  that 
sometimes  tears  open  the  sides  of  the  basin,  and  throws  large  pieces 
of  turf  into  the  air.  Then  all  is  quiet  again,  except  the  moans  and 
murmurs  of  the  constant  boiling. 

Around  the  mud  caldrons  are  extensive  sulphur  deposits,  which 
might  become  an  important  source  of  income  to  the  island. 

Fisheries.  — The  streams  that  pour  down  from  the  mountains  into 
every  fiord  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  and  their  fisheries  are  the  one 
source  of  wealth  to  the  Icelanders.  A  particularly  fine  fishing  local- 
ity is,  in  their  language,  called  "gold-bringing  country."  With 
their  fish  they  obtain  from  more  favored  countries  cargoes  of  bread- 
stuifs,  sugar,  coffee,  and  clothing. 

The  dress  of  the  Icelanders  is  very  simple.  The  men  wear  sea- 
men's or  peasants'  clothes  brought  from  Denmark,  and  the  women 
dress  chiefly  in  homespun,  the  only  picturesque  part  of  their  cos- 
tume being  a  jaunty  little  cap  with  a  black  tassel. 


Reykyavik. 

Reykyavik,  the  chief  town  or  village,  consists  of  a  few  scattered 
buildings,  —  one-story  wooden  houses  covered  with  turf,  with  grassy 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Mount  Hecla  ?  How  has  the  country  been  over- 
flowed ?  What  are  mud-volcanoes  ?  Geysers  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Great  Geyser  ? 
What  is  said  of  sulphur  ?  Of  the  fisheries  ?  Of  the  dress  of  the  people  ?  Of  Rey- 
kyavik ? 


knolls  and  small  gardens  between.  Fishing-boats  and  nets  are  always 
conspicuous,  and  foreign  vessels  are  usually  in  port. 

Lesser  villages  serve  as  seaports  at  various  points  along  the  coast, 
and  farm-houses  are  scattered  over  the  small  tracts  of  grass-land,  or 
near  the  marshes,  where  both  men  and  women  sometimes  gather  hay, 
ankle-deep  in  water. 

Faroe  Islands.  —  Half-way  between  Iceland  and  Scotland,  and 
belonging  also  to  the  Danes,  are  the  Faroe  Isles,  a  group  of  high, 
rocky  islands,  formerly  the  favorite  resort  of  the  Norse  j)irates,  and 
now  inhabited  by  a  few  simple,  hard-working  people,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  governor  from  Denmark.  The  high,  stern  cliffs  are 
topped  with  strips  of  grass-land,  whicli  afford  pasturage  for  sheep. 

The  villages  consist  of  a  few  small  houses  huddled  together  on  the 
crags,  —  dark  and  smoky  inside,  and  adorned  with  whale-flesh  and 
codfish  drying  on  the  walls.  The  church  and  the  governor's  house 
stand  in  the  background  of  the  chief  village,  only  differing  from  the 
other  buildings  in  size,  and  all  alike  built  of  wood  and  coated  with 
tar.  Whale  and  cod  fisheries  employ  the  people  during  the  summer, 
and  furnish  their  principal  food.  While  the  men  are  out  in  boats, 
the  women  may  be  seen  along  the  rocky  bays  collecting  and  packing 
the  dried  codfish. 

RUSSIA. 

Russia  is  an  immense  plain,  occupying  the  eastern  half  of  Europe, 
and  only  broken  by  the  slight  central  elevation,  known  as  the  Valdai 
Hills,  which  serves  as  a  watershed  between  the  rivers  flowing  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  those  flowing  into  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas. 
Vast  tracts  of  forest  extend  over  portions  of  the  country  ;  low  marsh- 
lands border  on  the  Baltic  ;  and  in  the  southeast  broad  steppes,  or 
treeless  plains,  connect  with  the  Asiatic  steppes  around  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Though  this  portion  of  the  plain  reaches  as  far  south  as  the 
Mediterranean  shores,  Russia  is  classed  with  the  countries  of  North- 
ern Europe  ;  and  its  name  is  suggestive  of  snows  and  furs.  Sleigh- 
ing is  the  only  mode  of  travelling  during  a  great  part  of  the  year, 
and  much  of  the  transportation  is  by  sledges. 

Occupations.  —  Agriculture  has  not  been  very  skilfully  conducted, 
but  improvements  are  now  in  progress.  Grain  is  largely  grown, 
especially  in  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  the  other  chief  products  are 
hemp  and  flax.  Sheep-raising  is  profitable,  and  the  people  of  some 
districts  support  themselves  by  keeping  bees  and  making  honey  and 
wax.  The  fisheries  are  extensive  and  profitable,  especially  on  the 
Volga,  where  almost  the  entire  population  of  some  villages  is  em- 
ploj'ed  in  the  celebrated  sturgeon-fisheries.  Large  quantities  of  salt 
are  collected  along  the  sea-coast.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly  coarse 
linens  and  woollens,  sail-cloth,  bagging,  cordage,  soap,  and  linseed- 
oil.  In  leather-making  the  Russians  excel,  and  Russia-leather  is 
widely  known  and  used.  The  important  exports  are  fish,  lumber, 
leather,  cordage,  grain,  and  oil. 

Russia  is  ruled  by  an  Emperor,  or  Czar.  The  nobles  have  also  been 
very  powerful  in  their  own  provinces,  and  for  a  long  time  the  peasants, 
or  serfs,  were  bought  and  sold  with  the  land  they  tilled,  and  were  sub- 
ject to  the  lord  of  the  estate.  In  1861,  however,  an  imperial  edict 
was  issued  freeing  the  serfs,  and  the  condition  of  people  and  country 
is  improving.  In  many  provinces  the  peasants  are  still  very  rough 
and  ignorant.  The  men  usually  wear  coats  of  sheep-skin  or  coarse 
woollen  cloth,  and   loose  trousers  tucked  into  their  heavy  boots. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  other  villages?  "WTiere  are  the  Faroe  Islands? 
What  of  their  surface  ?  Of  the  villages  ?  Of  the  fisheries  ?  What  is  said  of  the  ex- 
tent and  surface  of  Russia  ?  Of  the  climate  ?  What  are  the  occupations  ?  Manufac- 
tures ?    Exports  ?     What  is  said  of  the  government  ?    Of  serfs  ? 


EUROPE. 


131 


Travelling  in  Russia. 

Their  villages  consist  of  a  number  of  log-huts  with  steep  roofs  of 
rough  boards,  standing  irregularly  on  the  plain  without  the  least 
order  as  to  streets,  and  destitute  of  gardens  or  trees,  except,  per- 
haps, a  distant  background  of  pines.  However  scantily  furnished, 
each  hut  contains  in  one  corner  a  little  picture  of  a  saint  with  a 
lamp  suspended  before  it,  and,  if  possible,  kept  burning. 

The  national  religion  is  that  of  the  Greek  Church,  which  resem- 
bles in  many  respects  the  Romish 
Church,    and    prevails    only    in 
Greece  and  Russia. 

Separated  from  the  steppes  of 
Asia  only  by  the  Caspian  Sea, 
;iud  from  the  forests  of  Siberia 
iiy  the  Ural  Mountains,  Russia 
forms  a  connecting  link  between 
the  Asiatic  and  the  European 
world.  Its  dry  steppes,  its  ba- 
zaars, its  domes  surmounted  by 
both  cross  and  crescent,  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  East,  while  the 
farms  and  villages,  the  gay, 
broad  streets  and  Parisian  fash- 
ions of  its  capital,  belong  to  Eu- 
ropean civilization.  Yet  Russia 
is  still  new  in  that  Old  Worfd, 
with  extensive  forests  to  be 
used,  and  broad  acres  to  be  cul- 
tivated. 

Its  advantages  for  trade  are  great,  —  avast  level  surface,  an  almost 
uninterrupted  river-communication  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  to 
the  Baltic,  intercourse  through  St.  Petersburg  with  the  rest  of  Europe, 
an  open  route  from  China  through  Siberia,  and  navigable  seas  on  its 

Questions  —  What  is  said  of  the  peasants  and  their  houses  ?  What  is  the  national 
religion  ?  How  does  Russia  differ  from  the  other  countries  of  Europe  1  What  are  its 
advantages  for  trade  ? 


southern  border  which  bring  it  into  con- 
nection with  Western  Asia. 

On  the  south,  Russia  borders  upon 
Turkey,  and  there  have  been  frequent 
hostilities  between  the  two  nations. 
The  mountainous  provinces  of  Gircassia 
and  Georgia,  in  the  Caucasus  range,  now 
belong  to  Russia,  but  are  subject  to  in- 
vasions from  the  Turks.  They  are  of 
little  value  to  the  Empire,  and  the  in- 
habitants are  rude,  wild  peasants.  The 
Cossacks  of  the  Don,  of  Tartar  descent, 
are  a  fierce  tribe,  who  refuse  to  pay 
taxes,  but  serve  in  the  army,  and  are 
noted  for  their  bravery. 

Southern  Russia.  —  Little  of  the  south- 
ern country  is  serviceable  for  cultiva- 
tion, the  greater  part  being  occupied  by 
the  steppes,  dreary,  monotonous  plains 
spreading  eastward  to  the  Caspian  Sea, 
unbroken  by  hills  or  trees,  and  covered 
with  a  thin  pasturage.  In  summer  the 
air  is  filled  with  clouds  of  fine  dust,  and 
in  winter  with  icy  particles  of  drifting 
snow.  The  peninsula  of  the  Crimea,  ex- 
tending into  the  Black  Sea,  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  neigh- 
boring steppes.  It  is  crossed  by  precipitous  mountain-ridges,  richly 
wooded  with  oaks,  cypress,  and  walnut.  On  the  steep  slope  from 
the  water's  edge  is  the  charming  little  town  of  Yalta,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  royal  family,  who  leave  the  marshes  of  the  Baltic 
for  the  balmy  air  and  lovely  views  of  vineyards  and  mulberry-groves 
along  the  slopes  and  waters  of  the  Black  Sea. 


Village-houses  in  Russia.  , 

Odessa,  the  important  port  of  the  Black  Sea,  carries  on  an  immense 
grain-trade.  The  surrounding  country  is  flat  and  dreary,  and  desti- 
tute of  trees,  and  all  the  wood  and  stone  which  are  used  are  imported. 
Astrachan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  is  the  chief  port  for  the  trade 

Questions.  —  Where  and  what  are  Circassia  and  Georgia  ?  Who  are  the  Cos- 
sacks ?  Describe  the  steppes.  The  Crimea.  What  is  said  of  Odessa  ?  Of  As- 
trachan ? 


132 


OUR  WORLD. 


with  Western  Asia.  The  streets  are  full  of  people  of  various  races 
and  costumes,  and  several  Mohammedan  mosques  add  to  the  Oriental 
appearance  of  the  city.  Astrachan  is  also  the  centre  of  the  Volga 
fisheries,  whence  fish  are  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  country. 
Saratov,  the  most  populous  city  on  the  Volga,  trades  largely  in  fish, 
grain,  and  leather.  Orenburg  is  important  as  the  rendezvous  of 
caravans  from  Asia.  There  is  an  immense  traffic  between  Europe 
and  Asia  through  these  Caspian  steppes.  Several  thousand  camels 
are  employed  in  caravans  which  leave  Bokhara,  in  Turkestan,  for 
different  points  on  the  Russian  frontier,  chiefly  for  Orenburg, 
bringing  tea,  rice,  cotton,  wool,  and  sheep-skins,  among  others 
the  curly  lamb-skin  known  as  Astrachan,  which  is  only  obtained 
in  a  small  territory  near  Bokhara,  though  many  other  inferior 
skins  are  sold  as  such.  This  merchandise,  together  with  silks, 
woollens,  drugs,  etc.,  from  Arabia  and  Turkey,  is  collected  for  the 
annual  fair  at  Nijnei-Novgorod,  at  the  junction  of  the  Oka  with  the 
Volga. 

This  fair  is  the  most  extensive  commercial  market  in  the  world. 
The  ground  is  laid  out  in  regular  streets  with  wooden  shops,  and  the 
governor  of  the  city,  with  his  oflScials,  occupies  the  central  squart' 
during  the  months  of  the  fair.  Every  variety  of  face  and  costume 
may  be  seen,  —  the  flat-nosed  merchants  of  Archangel,  with  their 
furs  ;  the  Chinese,  with  oblique  eyes  and  long  braids  ;  Cossacks 
bringing  their  hides  to  barter  ;  dark-bearded  Persians,  in  silk  caftans  ; 
Mohammedans  of  all  classes  ;  English,  German,  Swiss,  and  French 
merchants ;  and  even  traders  from  New  York  and  Boston.  Each 
class  of  goods  has  a  separate  quarter.  The  tea-quarter,  one  of  the 
largest,  occupies  several  streets.  The  Persian  quarter  is  attractive 
with  its  costly  silks,  shawls,  rugs,  and  perfumes.  In  another  quar- 
ter may  be  seen  the  skins  of  all  the  fur-bearing  animals  ;  and  gums, 
spices,  and  numerous  wares  are  bought  and  sold.  Then  the  bright 
colors,  eager  faces,  and  hum. of  voices  suddenly  disappear,  and  the 
grounds  are  deserted  until  another  season. 

Northern  Russia.  —  In  the-  midst  of  fertile  woodlands  appear  the 
brilliant  white  walls,  glittering  domes,  and  towers  of  Moscow,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Russia.  Here  stands  the  kremlin,  or  citadel,  and 
here  all  imposing  rites  are  still  performed,  though  the  Court  is  re- 
moved to  St.  Petersburg.  The  city  spreads  over  an  extensive 
area,  and  is  remarkable  for  a  quaint  irregularity  of  streets  and 
buildings.  Its  manufactures  are  greater  than  those  of  any  other 
Russian  city. 

St.  Petersburg,  with  its  spires  and  domes,  rises  from  the  flat, 
dreary  marsh-lands  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  like  an  enchanted  citj', 
exhibiting  the  splendors  of  art  amid  the  utmost  poverty  of  nature. 
In  a  quaking  bog,  scarcely  above  the  Baltic  Scja,  covered  with  snow 
five  months  of  the  year,  and  subject  to  fearful  inundations,  stands  one 
of  the  finest  cities  of  Europe.  The  capital  of  Russia,  with  its  half- 
million  of  inhabitants,  spreads  over  an  immense  space  ;  contains 
broad,  regular  streets,  large  squares,  lofty  buildings,  and  numerous 
churches  with  golden  and  azure  domes.  The  city  is  noted  for  its 
gayety  during  the  long  winter,  when  it  is  visited  by  people  from  all 
parts  of  Russia,  and  crowds  of  sleighs  dash  with  the  utmost  rapidity 
through  the  wide,  level  streets.  The  houses  are  well  heated,  and  the 
climate  not  unhealthy,  though  the  Arctic  winds  are  so  keen  that  meat 
and  fish  are  frozen  hard  in  the  markets,  and  sawed  into  slices  for 
purchasers. 

Riga  is  a  port  on   the  Gulf  of  Riga  ;    and  Archangel,   on   the 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Saratov  ?  Orenburg  ?  Of  the  caravan-trade  ?  Of 
Nijnei-Novgorod  ?  Of  the  annual  fair  ?  Moscow  ?  St.  Petersburg  1  What  is  said 
of  Riga,  Archangel,  and  Perm  ? 


White  Sea,  is  the  only  port  of  consequence  so  far  north.  Perm, 
in  the  eastern  part,  is  the  trading-depot  between  Siberia  and 
Russia. 

Lapland.  — ■  Between  Sweden  and  Russia  is  the  rocky,  dreary 
province  of  Lapland.  The  straggling,  stunted  pines  cease  entirely  in 
its  northern  parts,  where  the  barren  hills  are  always  covered  with 
snow,  and  there  is  no  sun  for  six  weeks  in  midwinter.  The  reindeer, 
which  feed  upon  scanty  grasses  and  Arctic  mosses,  supply  food, 
clothing,  and  means  of  transportation  for  the  Laplanders,  who  are 
somewhat  superior  to  the  Esquimaux  in  appearance  and  condition. 
They  dress  in  skins,  and,  when  not  on  sleds,  walk  over  the  snow  in 


•-""^^^sSf-?- 


immense,  boat-shaped  snow-shoes.  The  best  houses  are  built  of 
wood,  but  most  of  the  people  live  in  low  dwellings  covered  with 
skins  and  turf,  and  scarcely  to  be  recognized,  except  by  the  smoke 
issuing  from  a  hole  in  the  top. 

SUMMARY. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  forming  a  mountainous  peninsula,  are  under 
one  general  government,  vested  in  the  king  of  Sweden.  The  climate 
is  moderate  for  the  high  latitude.  The  coast  of  Norway  is  pre- 
cipitous and  indented  with  fiords  ;  but  the  coast  of  Sweden  slopes 
gradually  to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  cities  and  farms  are  chiefly  in 
the  south.  The  products  of  cultivation  and  the  manufactures  are  few, 
and  only  for  home  use.  The  wealth  of  the  country  consists  in  its 
iron-mines,  lumber,  and  fisheries.  The  imports  are  manufactured 
goods  and  groceries. 

Russia  consists  of  a  vast  plain  extending  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to 
the  Black  Sea,  but  belongs  chiefly  with  the  northern  countries.  Large 
tracts  are  covered  with  forests.  In  the  southeast  are  treeless  steppes. 
The  agricultural  products  are  grain,  hemp,  and  flax.  The  manufac- 
tures are  coarse  linens  and  woollens,  xordage,  oil,  soap,  and  excel- 
lent leather.  The  exports  are  furs,  including  those  of  Siberia, 
fish,  leather,  cordage,  oil,  grain,  etc.  The  trade  is  extensive,  — 
with  China  through  Siberia,  with  Southwestern  Asia  through 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  with  Western  Europe.  Nijnei- 
Novgorod  is  the  great  centre  of  the  Eastern  trade.  St.  Peters- 
burg, the  capital,  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe.  Russia  is 
ruled  by  an  Emperor,  or  Czar,  and  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of 
modern  nations. 


Questions.  —  Describe  Lapland.     What  is  said  of  the  reindeer  ?    Of  the  Lap- 
landers ?    Of  their  dwellings  ? 


ASIA. 


133 


GENERAL  REVIEW  QUESTIONS  FOR  EUROPE. 

Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  does  Europe  lie  ?  Great  Britain  ?  France  ? 
What  part  of  North  America  is  in  the  same  latitude  with  Norway  and  Sweden  ?  With 
Italy  ?  What  water  is  crossed  in  going  from  England  to  France  ?  From  Englspd  to 
Northern  Europe  ?  What  is  the  opening  into  the  Baltic  Sea  ?  What  countries 
border  on  the  Baltic  ?  On  the  North  Sea  ?  Upon  what  waters  has  Eussia  a  coast 
line  ?  What  are  the  chief  ports  of  the  Baltic  ?  Of  the  North  Sea  ?  Of  the  Irish 
Sea  ?  Caspian  Sea  ?  Black  Sea  ?  Mediterranean  Sea  ?  Where  are  some  of  the  im- 
portant fisheries  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  Shetland  islands  ?  Of  the  Ionian 
Islands  ?  Where  is  the  island  of  Alderney  ?  The  Isle  of  Wight  ?  Where  are  the 
three  volcanoes  of  the  Mediterranean  ?  What  are  the  mountain-ranges  of  Europe  ? 
Which  are  the  principal  peaks  and  passes  of  the  Alps  ?  What  are  the  largest  rivere 
of  Europe  ?  Upon  what  rivers  are  London,  Paris,  and  Rome  ?  Describe  the  courses 
of  the  Rhine  and  Rhone  from  their  sources  in  the  Swiss  glaciers.  Where  are  the 
lake-regions  of  Russia,  Middle  Europe,  and  Great  Britain  ?  In  what  direction  do 
most  of  the  rivers  of  France  and  Spain  flow  ?  Where  are  the  great  wine-exporting 
regions  of  Europe  ?  Which  export  sherries  and  Madeira  ?  Clarets  ?  Champagnes  ? 
Light  hock  wines  ?  Where  do  currants  come  from  ?  Which  are  the  largest  ilax- 
growing  and  linen-making  countries  ?  What  are  the  productions  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean sliores  ?  Where  are  sortie  of  the  great  coal  and  iron  mines  ?  Tin  mines  ?  Salt 
mines  ?  Where  are  the  coral-fislieries  ?  Describe  the  surface  of  Holland.  Of  Switzer- 
land. What  is  the  situation  of  St.  Petersburg?  Of  Madrid?  What  resemblance 
is  there  between  Venice  and  Amsterdam  ?  For  what  is  Nijnei-Novgorod  noted  ? 
Leipsic  ?  Manchester  ?  Sheffield  ?  Lyons  ?  Malaga  ?  Dover  and  Calais  ?  Bir- 
mingham ?  Paisley  ?  What  are  some  of  the  chief  cities  of  Italy  ?  Of  France  ?  Of 
England  ?  Of  Gei-many  ?  Where  is  Vienna  ?  Berlin  ?  Brussels  ?  Dresden  ?  Liv- 
erpool ?    Edinburgh  ?     Dublin  ?    Hamburg  ?    Stockholm  ?    Copenhagen  ? 


SPECIAL  TERMS. 

Heath.  —  A  shrubby  plant  with  narrow  leaves  and  small  bell-flowers. 

Moors.  —  Lonely,  sterile  tracts  in  England  and  Scotland,  covered  with  heath,  and 

often  uninhabited  for  miles. 
Fens.  —  Marshlands,  drained  to  make  good  sheep-pastures. 
Bogs.  —  Marshes  in  Ireland,  supplying  peat  for  fuel. 


Do'wns.  —  Tracts  of  dunes,   or  low  sand-hills,   along  the  southern  shore  of  Eng- 
land. 
Do'wns.  —  Name  also  given  to  a  roadstead  or  harbor  enclosed  by  sand-bars  off  the 

southeast  coast  of  England. 
Kelp.  —  The  name  given  to  a  kind  of  sea-weed,  or  to  the  ashes  obtained  from  it,  used 

ill  making  glass,  iodine,  etc. 
Friths  or  firths.  —  Deep  inlets  in  the  eoa.st  of  Scotland. 
Loch.  —  The  Scotch  name  for  lake. 
Clans.  —  Tribes  or  families  of  Highlanders  in  Scotland. 
Bagpipe.  —  Musical  instrument  of  the  Highlanders. 
Abbeys.  —  Ma.ssive  buildings  erected  during  the  Middle  Ages  for  monks  or  priests, 

and  which  often  served  as  refuges  for  the  villagers  in  times  of  warfare. 
Druids.  —  Ancient  priests  of  Britain,  before  the  Saxon  invasions.     Their  rites  were 

celebrated  in  oak -groves,  and  the  mistletoe,  often  found  growing  on  the  boughs, 

was  held  sacred  by  them.     Circles  or  heaps  of  stones,  that  served  as  altars,  are 

still  found  in  England. 
Gothic  Architecture.  — A  style  of  architecture  with  high,  pointed  arches,  belonging 

to  many  of  the  cathedrals  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Ramparts.  —  Embankments  surrounding  castle  and  city  walls,  formed  partly  of  the 

earth  thrown  out  of  the  moat,  or  ditch. 
Boulevards.  —  The  French  for  bulwarks  or  ramparts.     The  name  is  now  given  to 

promenades  made  on  the  site  of  old  fortifications,  as  has  been  done  in  many  of 

the  European  cities. 
Dykes.  —  Embankments  of  earth  to  protect  from  inundations,  especially  needed  in 

Holland. 
Polders.  —  In  Holland,  drained  meadows  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Tiles.  —  Plates  of  earthenware  or  porcelain,  used  for  roofing  and  for  ornamenting 

windows,  fireplaces,  etc. 
Truffle.  —  An  edible  mushroom,  found  chiefly  in  France. 
Cossacks.  —  A  fierce,  bold  tribe  in  Southern  Russia. 
Vikings    or    Norse    pirates.  —  Norwegians  who    early  infested    the  Northern 

seas. 
Serf.  —  The  name  formerly  given  to  the  peasants  of  Russia,  who  were  bought  and  sold 

with  the  land. 

Lakgest  Cities.  —  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Liverpool. 
Longest  Rivers.  —  Volga,  Danube,  Don,  Dnieper,  Rhine,  Dvina. 


ASIA. 

[Refer  to  Map  of  Asia,  page  150.] 


Asia  includes:  1.  Siberia,  in  the  north,  belonging  to  Russia,  and 
containing  a  considerable  Russian  population  ;  2.  The  countries  of 
Eastern  and  Southern  Asia,  —  the  Chinese  Empire,  Japan,  and 
Farther  India,  inhabited  by  the  yellow-brown,  oblique-eyed  races, 
mostly  Buddhists  in  rehgion,  and  Hindostan,  where  Brahminism 
prevails  ;  3.  The  countries  of  Western  Asia,  belonging  to  the  long- 
bearded  Mohammedan  people. 

SIBERIA. 

The  Ural  Mountains  form  the  only  separation  between  European 
Russia  and  the  vast  plain  of  Asiatic  Russia,  which  extends  eastward 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  terminating  in  the  mountainous  peninsula  of 
Kamtschatka.  The  climate  is  severe ;  the  low,  swampy  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow  and  ice,  but  farther 
south  immense  tracts  are  occupied  by  dense  forests  of  birch  and  pine, 
alternating  with  grass  plains  and  reedy  marshes. 

Half  a  century  ago  the  name  of  Siberia  suggested  all  the  horrors 
of  a  wilderness  in  arctic  latitudes,  which  was  used  by  Russia  as  a 
place  of  exile,  not  only  for  convicts,  but  for  political  prisoners  of 
rank  and  education,  who  were  often   accompanied  by  their  families. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Siberia  ?    What  was  the  condition  of  the  country 


The  sympathies  of  the  young  people  of  the  last  generation  were 
excited  by  stories  of  exiles  sent  by  a  dreary  journey  of  months  to 
pass  the  rest  of  their  lives  in  wretched  huts  in  these  freezing  soli- 
tudes. The  government  officers  resided  in  the  small  town  of  Tobolsk. 
Since  then  almost  as  great  a  change  has  taken  place  there  as  in  oiir 
own  Western  plateau.  The  bare  northern  shores  are  still  uninhabit- 
able, great  forests  remain  unfelled,  and  the  fur-hunters  suffer  severe 
hardships  in  exploring  the  wilderness  ;  but  sleighs  and  long  trains  of 
freight-sleds  now  run  frequently  over  regular  trading-routes  ;  thriving 
towns  have  grown  up,  with  well-filled  shops  and  comfortable  homes  ; 
the  children  of  exiles,  wlio  know  no  other  country,  regard  Siberia  as 
a  desirable  home,  and  have  good  society,  schools,  and  other  advan- 
tages of  social  life.  Many  of  the  towns  and  villages  are  surrounded 
with  farms  and  gardens,  and  grain  is  considerably  cultivated  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  country. 

The  native  Siberians  are  of  various  tribes,  which,  though  still 
uncivilized,  are  influenced  by  communication  with  the  Chinese  and 
Russians,  with  whom  they  have  some  trade  in  manufactured  goods. 
Some  of  them  keep  flocks  and  herds  ;  others  live  upon  game  and 
fish.     They  are  expert  in  dressing  skins,  and  make  mats,  nets,  and 

fifty  years  ago  ?  What  changes  have  taken  place  ?  By  whom  is  the  country  now  in- 
habited ?    What  is  said  of  the  native  tribes  ? 


134 


OUR  WORLD. 


sleds.  They  are  confined  now  chiefly  to  the  eastern  provinces, 
especially  along  the  Lower  Amoor. 

The  rapid  increase  of  the  Russian  population,  which  has  spread 
over  a  large  part  of  the  country,  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  valuable 
mines  of  the  Ural  and  Altai  Mountains.  The  first  mines  were  worked 
for  the  government  by  convicts  ;  but  as  the  mineral  wealth  of  these 
mountains  was  gradually  developed  the  mining  operations  became 
more  extensive.  Large  companies  of  peasants,  sometimes  even  the 
entire  populations  of  Russian  villages,  were  transported  to  Siberia 
with  government  officers  and  expert  miners.  These  were  followed 
by  traders,  emigrants,  and  mining  agents,  and  a  population  of  sev- 
eral thousand  was  soon  collected  about  each  new  mine.  Wealthy 
nobles  acquired  large  possessions  in  the  mining-regions,  and,  beside 
smel ting-furnaces  and  iron-foundries,  machine-shops,  manufacturing 
establishments,  schools,  and  libraries  are  connected  with  the  mines. 
The  mining  products  —  silver,  gold,  iron,  porphyry,  malachite,  and 
other  ornamental  stones,  beside  emeralds,  rubies,  etc.  —  constitute 
the  chief  resources  of  the  country,  and  are  of  immense  value.  Mica 
is  also  obtained,  and  used  largely  in  place  of  glass  for  windows. 

Ural  mines.  —  Ekaterinenburg,  prettily  situated  among  wooded 
hills,  is  not  a  large  place,  but  very  important  as  the  centre  of  the 
Ural  mining-district.  The  chief  attractions  of  the  town  are  the 
magnificent  mansions  in  the  suburbs,  belonging  to  wealthy  Russian 
noblemen,  who,  having  large  mining  interests  here,  have  built  per- 
manent residences,  where  no  luxury  is  wanting  that  money  can  pro- 
cure. In  their  greenhouses  oranges,  grapes,  and  pineapples  are  culti- 
vated, and  the  rarest  varieties  of  tropical  plants  bloom  in  the  midst 
of  Siberian  snows. 

Questions.  —  What  has  caused  the  increase  of  Russian  population  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  mines?    Describe  the  Ural  mines.     Wliat  is  said  of  Ekaterinenburg  ? 


Near  the  town  there  are  large 
establishments  for  working  the 
products  of  the  mines,  and 
government  mechanical  works, 
where  machinery  and  tools  are 
made.  There  is  also  a  factory 
for  chairs,  tables,  baskets,  etc., 
ol  iron,  quite  equal  to  those  of 
Berlin  ;  and  another  for  sabres, 
(1  iggers,  and  cuirasses,  where 
the  ancient  art  of  making  the 
Damascus  steel  has  been  revived. 
^till  more  interesting,  perhaps,  is 
tlic  large  establishment  for  stone- 
\  ork,  where  columns,  vases, 
c  destals,  and  table-tops  are 
iiade  from  the  beautifully  col- 
ored porphyry  and  the  brilliant 
green  malachite.  There  is  a 
11  ge  museum,  containing  a  fine 
collection  of  arms  and  minerals, 
and  a  library. 

Trade.  —  The  early  trade  of 
biberia  was  begun  by  adventur- 
ous fur-traders  and  agents,  who 
bartered  with  the  natives  for 
furs  and  skins.  These  men 
gradually  penetrated  farther  east- 
ward, encouraged  by  the  gov- 
ernment, which  established  at 
intervals  posts  and  trading-stations.  They  were  several  times  driven 
back  by  the  Chinese,  as  they  encroached  southward  ;  but  at  last 
China  and  Russia  came  to  an  agreement  by  which  the  navigation  of 
the  Amoor  was  yielded  to  the  latter,  —  an  important  point  to  gain, 
as  the  other  large  rivers  of  Siberia  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It 
was  also  arranged  that  trade  should  be  opened  with  the  Chinese 
Empire  through  the  Chinese  city  Maimatchin  and  Kiachta,  a  sort  of 
suburb  of  the  larger  city,  situated  within  the  Russian  border,  and  not 
very  far  from  Lake  Baikal.  Since  then  a  regular  and  extensive  trade 
has  grown  up  throughout  Siberia,  consisting,  —  I.  Of  the  transit 
trade  between  China  and  Russia,  by  which  immense  quantities  of 
tea  are  brought  through  Kiachta,  transported  in  steamboats  across 
Lake  Baikal,  up  the  river  to  Irkutsk,  thence  to  Tomsk  or  Tobolsk, 
and  from  there  sent  to  Perm  in  Russia;  2.  Of  the  direct  trade  of  the 
country  in  mining  products  and  furs,  which  are  not  only  sent  to  all 
parts  of  Europe,  but  supply  the  winter  dress  of  the  Chinese  and 
Tartars. 

Government.  —  The  country  is  divided  into  separate  governments, 
or  provinces,  —  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  and  Omsk,  in  Western  Siberia,  and 
Yeniseisk,  Irkutsk,  Yaki^tsk,  Okhotsk,  and  Kamtschatka,  in  Easte: 
Siberia.     These  are  all  under  the  control  of  a  governor-general,  whi 
receives  orders  from  St.  Petersburg. 

Cities.  —  These  are  not  very  large,  but  are  busy  and  growing. 
Irkutsk  makes  a  fine  appearance  with  its  burnished  spires,  wide  streets, 
and  substantial  houses,  and  is  beautifully  and  conveniently  situated 
on  the  Angara  River,  not  far  from  Lake  Baikal,  where  it  receives  most 
of  the  transit  trade  from  China,  beside  being  within  reach  of  the 
mines.     Tomsk,  a  place  of  about  the  same  size  farther  north,  has  also 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  fur-traders  and  the  progi-ess  of  trade  ?  What  is 
the  trading-route  from  China  ?    What  is  the  goyemment  ?    Describe  Irkutsk. 


nd 


ASIA. 


135 


the  benefit  of  the  China  trade,  and  is 
well  supplied  with  warehouses,  markets, 
and  bazaars.  Loads  of  iron,  tea,  wool, 
and  furs  fill  the  streets  and  line  the 
approach  to  the  city ;  and  thousands  of 
boxes  of  tea  are  despatched  to  Russia. 
Tobolsk  and  Omsk  are  similar  in  ap- 
pearance, and  are  supplied  with  foreij^n 
goods  chiefly  by  the  annual  fairs,  which 
are  so  common  through  Middle  and 
Western  Asia.  Other  smaller  towns 
are  rapidly  growing. 

Kamtschatka.  —  There  are  only  a 
few  thousand  iidiabitants  on  the  penin- 
sula, and  trade  is  confined  to  the  ves- 
sels which  annually  bring  merchandise 
and  take  furs  in  return.  The  sables 
here  are  of  good  quality,  and  the  fur  of 
the  silver  atid  gray  fo.x  finer  than  else- 
where. Petropaulovski  is  a  little  towi 
where  a  few  commercial  houses  keep 
up  trade  and  furnish  supplies  to  the  up- 
country,  receiving  furs  and  skins  in  ex- 
change. Small  boats  coast  along  the 
shores  in  summer,  and  in  winter  the 
inland  valleys  are  reached  by  dog 
sledges. 

SUMMARY. 

Siberia  belongs  to  Russia,  and  forms  a 
continuation  of  the  great  Russian  plain 
of  Northern  Europe.      The  climate  is 

<overe,  but  large  tracts  are  covered  with  pine  forests,  grain  is  culti- 
vated in  the  southern  part,  and  during  the  short  summer  wild-flowers 
and  strawberries  appear  on  the  lower  slopes.  The  resources  of  the 
countrj'  consist  of  iron,  gold,  silver,  and  stones,  from  extensive  min- 
ing-regions in  the  Ural  and  Altai  Mountains,  and  of  the  costly  furs 
of  the  sable,  ermine,  and  marten.  An  extensive  trade  has  been 
opened  through  the  Amoor  to  the  Pacific,  and  across  the  Chinese 
frontier  at  Kiachta ;  and  tea  and  silk  are  transported  through  Siberia 
to  Europe. 

CHINESE  EMPIRE. 

The  Chinese  Empire  extends  from  the  Himalaya  to  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains, and  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  cast,  almost  to  the  Caspian 
Sea,  on  the  west,  including  the  high  plateaus  of  Mongolia,  Mantchuria, 
Tartary,  Thibet,  and  the  low  plains  of  China  Proper.  The  country, 
generally,  is  rough  and  barren,  and  on  the  highlands  the  climate  is 
severe,  even  in  the  southern  part ;  but  China  itself,  watered  by  the 
Yangtse-Kiang  and  Hoang-Ho,  is  one  of  the  finest  countries  in  the 
world,  with  a  good  soil,  great  natural  advantages,  and  a  climate 
varying  from  temperate  to  semi-tropical. 

The  wandering  tribes  of  the  central  plateaus  have  remained  more 
or  less  barbarous,  but  in  the  fertile  plains  the  Chinese  long  ago  devel- 
oped a  civilization  of  their  own,  and  for  centuries  went  on  cultivat- 
ing, building,  and  manufacturing  in  their  own  way.     Only  recently 

Questions.  —  What  are  the  other  chief  towns  ?  What  is  said  of  Kamtscliatka  ? 
What  is  the  extent  of  the  Chinese  Empire  ?  Describe  the  country.  What  is  said  of 
tlie  i)eople  ? 


Chinese  Architecture. 

have  they  sought  or  eveir  allowed  intercourse  with  strangers.  They 
have  taken  no  part  in  the  growth  and  overthrow  of  other  empires  ; 
but,  as  far  as  we  know  their  history,  there  has  been  almost  constant 
warfare  between  the  civilized  iidiabitants  of  the  southern  plains  and 
the  rude  tribes  of  the  neiglilioring  higliiands. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  things  to  be  seen  in  China  is  an  im- 
mense wall,  several  hundred  miles  long,  which  was  built  across  tlie 
country  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago  as  a  protection  against  the 
northern  barbarians.  These  nomadic  tribes  have  made  successive  in- 
vasions, sometimes  becoming  the  ruling  power,  and  establishing  a 
new  dynasty  ;  and  bv  this  means  the  whole  country  has  been  bronglit 
into  one  empire.  The  Tartars,  who  have  remained  in  Ciiina,  have 
adopted  the  habits  of  civilized  life  about  them  ;  but  the  two  races 
have  never  really  united.  Every  city  has  a  double  population  of 
Chinese  and  Tartars,  living  side  by  side  under  the  same  government, 
but  sociallj'  distinct,  and  still  regarding  each  other  with  some  jealousy 
and  distrust. 

Reugion. — The  popular  religion  of  the  Empire  is  Buddhism,  or 
worship  of  Buddha,  — a  reformation  or  modification  of  the  Brahmin- 
ism  of  India ;  and  the  teachings  of  the  ancient  philosopher  Con- 
fucius are  still  followed.  In  the  cities  of  China,  and  scattered  over 
the  central  plains,  are  numerous  Buddhist  temples,  similar  in  style, 
and  all  containing  seated  images  of  Buddha. 

The  influence  of  the  priests  is  far  greater  in  Tartary  and  Thibet 
than  in  China.  The  Grand  Lama,  or  chief  priest,  is  all-powerful,  and 
resides  in  great  pomp  in  the  holy  city  of  Lassa,  which  is  visited  by 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  wars  between  the  Chinese  and  Tartars  ?  What  is 
the  religion  ?     What  is  said  of  the  Grand  Lama  ? 


136 


OUR  WORLD. 


pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  The  lamas,  or  priests,  are 
much  respected  tiiroughont  all  the  region  ;  and  there  are,  beside 
temples,  many  toma.sa/7't'.s,  wliere  young  men  are  educated  for  priests. 
The  Buddh  sts  use,  in  their  temple-worship,  bronze  vases,  bells, 
gongs,  rosaries,  carved  images,  and  little  mills,  by  moans  of  which 
prayers  may  be  grouTid  out.  There  are  no  gloomy  sacrifices  con- 
nected with  the  religious  ceremonies,  as  in  India  The  temples  are 
substantially  built  of  brick,  and  richly  ornanientod,  but  have  no 
spires,  domes,  or  minarets.  The  images  of  Buddlia  are  of  bronze, 
or  of  wood  inlaid  with  gold  or  silver,  and  are  always  seated  on 
steps  or  pedestals  with  the  feet  crossed  under  them. 

China  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  north  and  west 
by  tlio  higlilands  of  the  Em|)ire,  and  is  separated  from  India  by  the 
Himalaya  Mountains  It  is  crossed  by  several  short  ridges,  and  is 
watered  by  the  two  large,  navigable  rivers  Yangtse-Kiang  and 
Iloang-Ilo,  and  many  smaller  streams.  The  country  is  fertile  and 
densely  peopled. 

Except  among  the  mountains,  there  are  no  forests,  for  the  popula- 
tion is  so  great  that  every  available  foot  of  land  is  cultivated.  Only 
around  the  villages  and  tlio  lar^e,  low,  brick  farm-houses  are  the  most 
useful  trees  allowed  to  grow. 

Agriculture  is  encouraged  by  the  government  in  every  possible 
way,  and  an  extensive  system  of  irrigation  is  admirably  managed 
throughout  the  country.  Canals  are  carried  through  all  the  fields, 
and  no  man  opens  the  sluices  of  his  canal  before  the  appointed  time, 
but  each  in  his  turn.  When  a  district  is  flooded,  it  resembles  the 
banks  of  the  Nile.  The  people  sail  over  their  land  in  little  skills,  and 
travellers  pass  along  the  raised  banks  on  the  sides  of  the  canal.  Not 
only  are  the  plains  and  valleys  cultivated,  but  high  mountains  are 
carefully  terraced  and  planted,  as  in  other  over-populous  countries  of 
the  East.  The  Chinese  are  fond  of  landscape-gardening,  and  the 
houses  of  the  wealthy  are  often  surrounded  by  groves,  artificial 
ponds,  bridges,  and  mounds.     They  delig<it  in   dwarfing  trees  and 

plants,  olten  making  little 
trees  two  feet  high  blossom 
and  bear  fruit.  Among  the 
most  common  flowers  are 
camelias  and  azaleas,  both 
of  which  grow  wild  in  great 
beauty  and  variety.  Char- 
acteristic of  every  Chinese 
landscape  are  the  pretty  six 
or  eight  sided  jmgodas,  ris- 
ing in  tiers  or  stories,  and 
topped  by  sharp-pointed 
roofs  of  colored  tiles,  pro- 
jecting at  the  edges,  and 
ornamented  with  gilt  balls. 
Productions.  —  Almost  the 
whole  country  is  devoted  to 
the  production  of  rice,  tea, 
and  mulberry-trees.  Rice, 
the  great  staple  for  food  for 
all  classes,  is  abundantly 
produced  on  the  lowlands, 
and  its  culture,  transporta- 
tion, and  sale  employ  many 


Ttfa-plant. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  lamas  and  lama.saiies  ?  Where  is  Cliiiia  proper  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  countiy?  Of  agriculture  ?  Gardening?  What  are  pagodas  ? 
What  are  the  productions  ? 


thousands  of  people.  Tea,  the  specialty  of  China,  is  grown  on  all 
the  low  hills  of  the  inland  country,  except  in  the  far  north,  where 
it  is  replaced  by  wheat  and  millet.  It  is  a  handsome  slirub,  several 
feet  high,  with  white  flowers,  and  leaves  resembling  those  of  a 
peach-tree.  Both  black  and  green  tea  may  be  made  from  the  same 
shrub,  and  all  the  varieties  depend  upon  the  time  of  gathering  and 
manner  of  drying.  There  are  three  gatherings:  the  first  while  the 
leaf  is  in  bud  ;  the  second  when  the  leaves  are  fully  formed  ;  and  the 
last  when  a  second  crop  of  loaves  has  grown.  The  plant  is  injured 
by  gathering  the  buds,  and  the  delicate  hyson  made  from  the  first 
gathering  is  very  expensive.  After  the  leaves  have  been  gathered 
and  slightly  wilted,  they  are  rolled  by  hand  and  slowly  dried  or 
roasted.  The  leaves  are  differently  pei-funicd,  colored,  or  roasted, 
for  diff'erent  markets  or  prices.  Some  are  bright  green,  some  brown, 
some  black,  some  mixed  with  stems,  others  clean  and  whole.  The 
people  use  immense  quantities,  drinking  it  througli  the  day  as  we 
should  water;  and,  instead  of  the  coU'ee-liouses  of  the  Moham- 
medans, every  city  is  well  supplied  with  "  tea-houses." 

The  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  for  silk  is  very  general,  and  in  the 
great  sUk-districts  one  may  travel  two  or  three  days  through  mul- 
berry-groves. By  a  process  of  dwarfing  the  trees,  the  leaves  are 
kept  delicate  and  tender,  and  very  fine  silk  is  produced.  The  worms 
are  kept  in  bamboo  sieves,  placed  on  shelves  in  dark  rooms.  The 
Avliole  process  of  silk  culture  is  very  simple.  Some  cotton  is  grown, 
and  a  stout  cotton  fabric,  known  as  nankeen,  is  peculiar  to  China. 


Bamboo-boat. 


The  indispensable  baviboo  is  cultivated  around  all  the  villages,  and 
is  as  useful  to  China  as  the  palm  is  to  Africa.  The  gigantic  canes 
are  often  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  circumference. 
The  stems  become  very  hard,  and  are  used  throughout  the  country 


Going  to  market. 


Questions.  —  How  is  tea  prcjiared  ?    What  is  said  of  the  bamboo  ? 


ASIA. 


137 


for  building  houses  and  boats,  for  tubes  and  water-pipes,  and  for 
fences,  baskets,  rods,  and  a  tliousand  other  purposes,  wliile  the  leaves 
are  used  to  thatcli  roofs,  make  ropes,  nets,  etc. 

Animals.  —  Tliero  are  no  wild  animals  in  the  thickly  settled 
lowlands,  ami  but  few  horses  Great  care  is  taken  of  pigs,  —  the 
most  valuable  of  the  animals  bred  for  food  ;  and  puppies,  and  even 
mice,  are  eaten.  Fish  abound  in  the  numerous  streams,  and  sup- 
ply many  thousands  with  food.  The  people  along  the  rivers  have  a 
singular  way  of  iishing  with  coi'moraiiU,  great  ungainly  birds  which 
seize  fish  after  fish  in  their  strong  bills  with  incredible  rapidity. 


A  Cormorant. 

Boats  go  out  at  certain  seasons  in  search  of  the  edible  birds'-neats, 
of  which  the  Chinese  are  very  fond.  These  nests  are  made  of  a  gluti- 
nous substance  by  a  species  of  swallow,  and  lodged  in  the  crevices  of 
rocky  cliffs  or  caverns  along  the  coast.  It  is  dilTlcMlt  and  dangerous 
to  obtain  them,  and  the  mucilage  or  soup  made  from  them  is  a  lux- 
ury of  the  wealthy. 

Another  Chinese  delicacy  is  the  trepang,  a  soft-bodied  creature, 
five  or  six  inches  long.  Thousands  of  junks  are  fitted  out  yearly  for 
trcpang-fishing  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  where  they  abound. 

Peoi'i.e. — The  Chinese  belong  to  the  Easterti  Asiatics,  and  have  a 
yellow-brown  complexion,  narrow,  ob]i(|ue  eyes,  and  smooth  faces, 
in  marked  distinction  from  the  bearded  Mohammedans  of  the  West. 
The  men  partially  shave  their  heads,  and  let  the  remaining  hair  hang 
down  behind  in  a  long  braid.  Their  braids,  broad  hats  with  pointed 
crowns,  and  loose,  clumsy  gowns  are  found  in  all  the  representations 
on  tea-boxes,  lacqner-ware,  and  porcelain.  The  cut  and  color  of  the 
gown,  tlie  swords  in  the  belt,  and  other  details  of  dress  arc  deter- 
mined by  law  or  hereditary  custom,  and  indicate  the  rank  of  the 
wearer.  Only  those  in  high  authority  have  the  privilege  of  wearing 
yellow.  Mandarinn,  or  government  officials  of  various  ranks,  are 
recognized  by  the  color  of  the  balls  on  their  hats.  Kich  brocades 
and  satins  are  worn  by  both  men  and  women,  except  by  the  laboring 
class,  whose  simple  garments  arc  usually  of  cotton. 

One  of  their  most  singular  customs  is  that  of  binding  the  feet  of 
female  infants  of  the  upper  classes,  in  order  that  they  may  totter 
through  life  in  shoes  three  or  four  inches  long.  The  flesh  of  the  natural 
foot  is  thus  forced  into  a  great  ankle,  and  a  little  peg  or  protuber- 
ance is  left  below  it  to  be  covered  by  the  tiny  shoes  of  red  or  blue 
embroidered  cloth. 

The  Chinese  use  no  knives  or  forks,  but  eat  with  chopsHcks,  small 
rods  a  foot  long,  usually  rhado  of  ivory,  but  also  of  pearl  or  silver 
elaborately  carved.     As  among  other  Eastern  nations,  little  prepara- 


Questions. 

Their  customs. 


-What  i.s  siiiJ  of  animals?    Of  birds'-nests  ?    Describe  the  people. 


tion  is  made  for  sleep,  —  the  floor  serving  for  a  bed  without  much 
change  of  costume.  The  Chinese  not  only  inhabit  the  opposite  side 
of  tlie  earth,  but  most  of  their  customs  are  opposed  to  ours.  They 
shave  off  their  hair  and  let  their  finger-nails  grow  to  a  great  length  ; 
they  drink  their  tea  cold  and  their  wine  warm  ;  they  wear  white  for 
mourning;  and  a  pupil,  when  reciting,  turns  his  back  to  the  teacher. 

As  a  people,  the  Cliinese  have  a  high  regard  for  education,  and  no 
man  can  hold  public  C)lfice  who  has  not  passed  a  creditable  examina- 
tion in  Chinese  literature.  Successful  students  are  an  honor  to  their 
ancestors,  and  are  enrolled  in  the  orders  of  "  Beautiful  Ability"  or 
"  Advanced  Men,"  whicli  correspond  to  our  college  degrees.  Their 
education  includes  but  little  knowledge  of  geography,  general  his- 
tory, or  natural  science  ;  being  mostly  confined  to  tln^ir  own  history, 
poems,  and  fictions,  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  writings  of 
Confucius,  their  great  philosopher,  director,  and  lawgiver. 

The  Chinese  consume  to  a  great  degree  their  own  productions, 
and  the  internal  trade  very  far  exceeds  the  foreign.  Though  tea  is 
so  generally  used  in  other  countries,  only  a  small  part  of  the  immense 
crop  is  exported.  No  country  has  more  extensive  water-communica- 
tion, and  nearly  all  transportation  is  by  boat.  Beside  the  large, 
navigable  rivers,  canals  cross  the  plain  in  all  directions,  and  the  less 
accessible  provinces  are  reached  by  flat-boats  on  the  smaller  streams. 
In  the  mountain-districts  donkeys  and  pack-horses  are  substituted  for 
water-transportation.  The  clumsy  Chinese  junks  and  fishing-craft  of 
various  kinds  fill  tiic  harbors  along  the  coast.  Many  families  dwell 
permanently  on  the  rivers,  and  their  boat-houses  are  moored  by  hun- 
dreds near  the  large  cities ;  some  live  by  fishing,  some  raise  flowers, 
and  others  ducks  for  sale. 


Chinaware,  or  porcelain,  was  first  manufactured  in  China,  and 
though  it  is  now  made  in  Europe  more  easily  and  cheaply,  the  Chinese 
still  excel  in  brightness  and  durability  of  coloring.  The  Chinese  also 
excel  in  the  manufacture  of  lacquered  ware,  which  they  use  for  eat- 
ing and  drinking  vessels  as  well  as  for  fancy  articles.  These  people 
have  wonderful  skill  and  patience  in  carving  on  wood,  ivory,  or  pearl, 
and  are  only  equalled  in  such  work  by  the  Japanese. 

The  manufacture  of  silk  originated  in  China.  Satins  and  large- 
figured  silks,  or  brocades,  are  usually  worn,  not  only  by  the  Chinese, 
but  by  the  tribes  of  the  interior;  and  one  of  the  special  fabrics  is  the 
w(!ll-known  Canton  crepe,  often  beautifully  embroidered. 

The  Chinese  have  no  large  factories  or  machinery,  and  the  finest 
silks,  gauzes,  and  satins  are  woven  in  the  small  dwellings  of  the  poor, 
upon  looms  of  the  simplest  construction,  all  the  family  taking  part 
in  the  dyeing,  spinning,  and  weaving. 


Questions.  —  How  do  they  regard  education  ?    What  is  said  of  trade  ?    Wliat  are 
the  nianufactures  ? 


138 


OUR  WORLD. 


Tlic  Chinese  attempt  no  woollen  fabrics  except  the  thick  felt  used 
for  the  soles  of  their  clumsy,  round-toed  shoes  and  black  satin  boots. 
Straw  and  hemp  are  braided  into  matting,  which  is  largely  exported. 
Gongs  and  firo-crackers  are  Ghitiese  inventions,  and  in  daily  use. 
Gongs  resound  in  temples,  streets,  and  boats  ;  and  crackers  are  fired 
off  on  all  occasions. 

CiTiKS.  — In  this  thickly  peopled  country  the  cities  are  large  and 
numerous.  The  streets  are  usually  narrow  and  crooked,  but  the 
names  of  both  streets  and  inns  are  imposing.  One  walks  through 
"  Justice  and  Mercy,"  and  sleeps  in  the  "  Five  Felicities  "  or  the 
"  Hotel  of  the  Temperate  Climates."  Everything  that  can  be  bought 
or  sold  is  peddled  through  the  streets  of  a  Cliinose  city,  and  all 

kinds  of  burdens  —  fruits, 
fish, flowers,  lacquered-ware, 
rice,  etc.  —  are  carried  in 
baskets,  tubs,  or  trays  hung 
at  the  ends  of  a  long  bamboo 
pole  laid  across  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  coolie,  or  porter. 
Peking,  the  capital,  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  twenty 
miles  in  circumference,  with 
sixteen  gates,  each  sur- 
mounted by  a  high  tower; 
and  the  Tartar  and  Chinese 
quarters  are  separated  by  a 
second  wall.  In  the  centre 
of  the  Tartar  city  is  a  walled 
enclosure  containing  the  im- 
perial palaces.  A  great  ave- 
nue, dividing  the  Chinese 
town  into  two  parts,  is  bordered  by  shops  and  markets ;  and  here 
carriages,  drawn  by  mules,  clatter  over  the  granite  flags  ;  princes,  in 
yellow  robes,  ride  slowly  on  Tartar  ponies ;  and  hundreds  of  pedlers 
go  up  and  down  with  their  bamboo  poles.  In  many  of  the  narrower 
streets  of  this  and  other  cities  the  only  vehicles  used  are  palanquins 


^m 


Sedans:  hair. 

and  sedan-chairs.  Canton,  the  great  port  of  China,  is  situated  about 
one  hundred  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Si-Kiang,  or  Canton  River, 
and  surrounded  by  rice-fields  and  gardens,  with  a  background  of 
mountains  in  the  distance.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  brick,  and  the 
roofs  covered  with  glazed  tilee.  Oiled  paper  or  mica  is  used  in  the 
small  windows  in  place  of  glass.  The  poor  live  mostly  in  the  suburbs 
and  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  in  huts  of  mud  and  bamboo.     But 


QuestlonB.  — What  is  said  of  cities  and  streets?    Of  Peking?    Of  Canton  I 


little  stone  is  used  in  building,  and  all  the  wood  needed  is  floated 
down  the  river  from  the  upper  country.  The  Chinese  were  for  a  long 
time  violently  opposed  to  receiving  foreigners  into  their  country,  and 
the  forts,  or  trading  establishments,  of  the  Dutch  and  English  near 
Canton  were  several  times  destroyed.  After  negotiations  with  the 
English  and  Russians  the  government  of  China  consented  to  open 
several  ports,  and  to  admit  foreign  merchants. 

Ilong  Kong,  a  little  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  Rirer,  was 
given  to  the  English,  and  is  now  covered  with  the  warehouses,  resi- 
dences, and  gardens  of  wealthy  merchants. 

Shanghai,  Amoy,  and  Poochoo,  large  cities  of  over  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants,  are  also  open  ports. 

Nanking,  formerly  the  capital,  has  declined  in  importance,  and  its 
famous  porcelain  tower  no  longer  exists. 

The  Central  Plateau.  —  The  remainder  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
includes  tlie  great  plateau,  bounded  by  the  Himalaya  and  Altai,  and 
crossed  by  the  Kuenlun  and  Thian-Shan  Mountains  and  many  lesser 
ridges,  which  divide  the  country  into  smaller  plateaus,  varying  some- 
what in  appearance,  though  all  this  vast  region  is  more  or  less  barren 
and  unfit  for  cultivation.  Some  of  the  mountain-slopes  are  wooded, 
but  many  ridges  consist  of  rough  ravines  and  rocky  crags,  overlook- 
ing a  broad,  rocky  surface  with  a  scanty  vegetation,  or  an  unbroken 
desert  of  sand,  or  a  vast,  undulating  country  covered  with  tall  grass. 

Being  so  elevated,  this  plateau  has  a  very  severe  climate,  except  in 
some  of  the  lower  and  sheltered  valleys.  During  the  short  summer 
the  sun  heats  the  sandy  deserts  considerably,  but  in  the  long  winter 
the  cold  is  often  as  intense  as  in  much  higher  latitudes.  Though 
snow  does  not  fall  in  large  quantities,  the  storms  are  blinding  and 
painful  to  travellers,  from  the  violence  and  cutting  sharpness  of  the 
winds.  Even  in  the  southern  province  of  Thibet  fur-wrappings,  felts, 
and  blankets  are  insufficient  for  a  winter  journey.  Along  the  road  to 
Lassa  are  scattered  bones  of  animals  and  of  men  who  have  frozen  to 
death  by  the  way. 

A.NLviALS.  — Among  the  mountains  are  found  goats,  elks,  deer,  the 
yak,  or  ox  of  Central  Asia,  and  eagles.  Toward  the  south  the  deep 
grass  jungles  are  full  of  tigers.  Camels  are  domesticated  and  used 
for  transportation,  and  the  grass-lands  are  covered  with  immense 
herds  of  cattle. 

Tartars  and  nomad  life.  —  These  extensive  pastures  have  been  for 
all  ages  the  home  of  nomad  Tartar  tribes,  who  dwell  in  tents,  and 
remove  from  place  to  place  with  countless  flocks  and  herds  as  the 
pastures  are  exhausted.  Each  tribe  has  its  chief  and  its  own  terri- 
tory ;  but  the  encampments  are  often  attacked  by  a  larger  force  and 
the  cattle  driven  off. 

For  miles  around  an  encampment  the  steppe  is  covered  with 
animals,  and  presents  a  scene  of  pastoral  life.  Near  the  encampment 
of  dark-brown  tents,  or  yourts,  the  women  and  children  milk  the  cows 
and  goats  in  leather  pails,  seldom,  if  ever,  washed,  and  make  felt 
coverings  for  the  yourts.  This  is  the  only  manufacture  attempted 
by  these  nomad  tribes,  and  consists  of  camel's  and  goat's  hair  well 
beaten  together,  and  repeatedly  dampened,  pounded,  and  dried,  until 
it  becomes  thick  and  solid.  The  yourt  is  furnished  with  a  rug,  leath- 
er bottles,  and  beds  of  skins.  These  people  care  little  for  cleanliness, 
but  are  extravagantly  fond  of  gay  costume  ;  and  persons  of  rank  are 
quite  richly  attired  in  silk  and  satin  from  China.  The  men  and  wo- 
men dress  much  alike,  wearing  in  summer  striped  silk  gowns,  scarlet 
or  green  shawls  around  the  waist,  wide  trousers  of  yellow  leather, 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Hong  Kong  ?  Wlmt  are  the  other  ports  ?  Describe 
the  Central  Plateau.  The  climate.  What  animals  are  found  there  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  inhabitants  1    What  is  their  mode  of  life  ? 


ASIA. 


139 


liigh-licelod  boots,  and  fox-skin  caps, 
Tlie  men  carry  knife,  pipe,  and  wliip 
stuck  in  tlie  girdle,  and  delight  in  gay 
trappings  for  their  fine  horses  The 
ruder  classes  often  wear  coats  of  horse- 
skin  ;  and  in  winter  all  dress  in  furs. 

Deserts,  often   of  great  extent   and 
desolate  beyond  measure,  alternate  witii 
pastures.     One  may  ride  all  day  ovc  r 
these   vast  stretches   of  sand    without 
perceiving  the  sliglitest   change  ;    not  #^ 
even  a  cloud  casting  a  shadow  over  the 
steppe,   no   rock    protruding   from    the 
surface,    ncitiier    shrub    nor   creeping 
plant  indicating  the  approach  to  any  ^^ 
habitable  region,  until  tlie  distant  bark 
ing  of  dogs  tells  of  a  Tartar  encamp 
ment. 

Towns.  —  Thougli  this  great  central 
table-land  is  mostly  inhabited  by  nomad 
tribes,  Chinese  towns  have  grown  up 
here  and  there,  and  even  the  Tartars 
have  occasionally  gathered  into  vil 
lages.  Buddhist  temples,  with  their 
gilt  and  colored  tiles  and  carved  drag- 
ons, are  scattered  along  the  valleys  and 
mountain-sides ;  and  solitary  Lamasa- 
riex,  or  convents,  serve  as  resorts  for 
pilgrims  and  schools  for  young  lamas, 

who  are  recognized  by  their  red  and  yellow  dress.  Occasionally 
hermit-lamas  occupy  cells  or  caves  among  the  mountains,  where 
their  prayer-mills  may  be  conveniently  turned  by  the  little  torrents. 

Thibet.  — In  the  southern  part  of  Thibet,  which  is  separated  from 
India  by  the  Himalaya,  the  people  have  mostly  permanent  habitations 
and  some  manufactures.  In  this  border  district  of  the  plateau  is  the 
holy  city.  Lassa,  a  large  place  with  handsome  buildings,  very  similar  to 
those  of  Chinese  cities,  surrounded  by  suburban  gardens  and  groves. 
The  palace  of  the  Grand  Lama  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  cluster  of 
temples ;  and  other  palaces  around  accommodate  the  numerous, 
splendidly  dressed  lamas  wiio  serve  in  the  temples.  Trade  and 
devotion  make  Lassa  a  general  resort  for  the  Eastern  Asiatics,  who 
assemble  licre  from  all  quarters. 

The  Thibetians  manufacture,  with  simple  implements,  the  fine 
woollen  cloth  for  the  dresses  of  the  lamas,  and  also  make  ornaments 
of  gold  and  silver.  The  mass  of  the  people  are  wretchedly  poor,  and 
the  gold  and  silver,  which  are  easily  obtained,  only  serve  to  increase 
the  splendor  of  the  temples  and  priests,  while  the  land,  mountainous 
and  barren,  affords  scanty  support. 

Tradb.  —  Notwithstanding  the  great  difficulties  of  travelling  over 
this  vast  plateau,  where  the  cold  is  often  severe,  a  constant  and  ex- 
tensive trade  is  carried  on,  chiefly  by  Chinese  merchants,  but  also  by 
Mohammedans.  Regular  caravan-routes  cross  the  entire  country, 
connecting  central  points  of  trade.  One  of  the  routes  passes  north- 
ward through  the  city  of  Maimatchin  into  Siberia.  Another  goes 
from  China  westward  to  Yarkand,  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  Em- 
pire, and  thence  through  Turkestan  into  Persia  and  Turkey.  Most 
of  the  trading  is  done  at  fairs  held  at  central  points.     Merchants 

Questions.  —  WTiat  is  said  of  deserts  ?  Of  towns  ?  Of  temples  ?  Wliat  is  said 
of  Tliihet  ?  Of  Lassa  ?  Tfie  Grand  Lama  ?  Of  the  people  ?  Of  ti-ade  and  caravan- 
routes  ? 


A  Village  In  Thibet 

come  from  all  parts  of  China  with  gay-colored  silks  and  satins,  and 
the  brick  tea,  which  is  made  of  stalks  and  refuse  leaves  of  the  tea- 
plant  dipped  in  bullock's  blood,  pressed  and  dried  in  brick-shaped 
moulds,  and  consumed  in  immense  quantities  throughout  the  Empire. 
Merchants  from  Turkey  and  Persia  bring  the  green  and  crimson 
shawls,  and  the  small  carpets  found  in  every  yourt.  The  Russians 
bring  guns,  powder,  etc.,  but  trade  mostly  at  their  own  outposts, 
where,  at  stated  times,  the  Tartars  go  with  their  sheep,  cattle,  and 
horses  to  barter.  Almost  all  transportation  is  by  means  of  camels ; 
and  the  hardy  Bactrian  camel  can  endure  the  intense  cold,  as  the 
Arabian  camel  can  tiie  hot  sand  of  the  desert 

Yarkand  consists  of  several  sf  roots  of  wooden  houses,  and  on 
market-days  its  bazaars,  two  or  three  miles  in  length,  are  gay  with 
traders  ;  and  the  plain  around  is  covered  with  tents,  camels,  bales  of 
goods,  flocks,  and  herds,  to  be  bartered  for  shawls,  silks,  tea,  etc. 

SUMMARY. 

The  Chinese  Empire  consists  of  China  and  the  Central  Plateau, 
China  is  a  fertile,  populous  country,  extensively  cultivated,  and  irri- 
gated by  canals.  The  chief  productions  are  tea,  rice,  and  the  silk- 
mulberry.  The  Chinese  are  quite  advanced  in  civilization,  have  a 
great  respect  for  education,  and  a  considerable  literature.  They 
manufacture  porcelain  and  silk,  and  excel  in  carving  ivory  and  wood 
and  in  all  work  recjuiring  great  patience  and  exactness.  Tlieir  latid- 
scapo  gardening  is  peculiar,  and  their  architecture  characterized  by 
projecting  tiled  roofs  and  octagonal  pagodas.  Their  cities  are  large 
and  numerous. 

The  central  plateau  is  inhabited  by  tribes  of  Tartars,  some  of  them 
nomads,  moving  about  with  flocks  and  herds  ;  those  of  Thibet  live  in 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Yarkand  ? 


140 


OUR  WORLD. 


villages,  and  have  some  manufactures.  The  religion  is  Buddhism, 
and  the  Grand  Lama  resides  at  the  holy  city  of  Lassa.  An  extensive 
trade  is  carried  on  across  the  Empire  with  Siberia  and  Turkestan, 
and  several  Chinese  ports  are  open  to  foreigners  ;  the  most  fre- 
quented is  Ilong  Kong,  belonging  to  the  English. 

JAPAN. 

The  island-empire  of  Japan  includes  Niphon,  Yeso,  Kiusiu,  Sikok, 
and  hundreds  of  smaller  islands  ;  Niphon,  the  largest,  being  about 
nine  hundred  miles  long  and  one  hundred  miles  wide.  These  islands 
are  mountainous  and  volcanic,  and  remarkably  picturesque,  with 
7iumerotis  bays  and  charmels  ;  hills  crowned  with  ancient  temples  ; 
high  cliffs  hung  with  vines  ;  and  a  highly  cultivated  country  stretch- 
ing inland.  Rising  above  all,  is  the  beautiful,  cone-like  volcano 
of  Pusi-Yama,  frecjuently  represented  on  Japanese  lacquer-ware. 
Yeso,  tJie  large  issland  north  of  Niphon,  has  a  rigorous  climate  and 
has  never  been  fully  explored.  The  settlement  of  the  Japanese  is  at 
the  southern  extremity,  where  the  city  of  Ilakodadi  is  situated. 
The  natives  of  the  island  are  called  Ainos,  or  hairy  men.  They  are 
entirely  different  from  the  Japanese,  and  resemble  the  Caucasian 
race.     They  acknowledge  allegiance  to  the  Japanese. 

Copper,  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  coal  exist  in  various  localities,  but 
the  methods  of  mining  are  of  the  simplest  kind.  The  climate  is 
mainly  temperate,  but  varies  greatly,  and  in  the  lower  provinces  the 
vegetation  is  almost  tropical.  Most  of  the  islands  are  well  wooded 
with  oak,  birch,  cypress,  and  cedar.  Mulberry-trees  abtmnd,  and 
many  towns  and  villages  are  supported  entirely  by  the  silk-culture. 
One  of  the  most  valuable  trees  is  the  varnish-tree,  which  yields  the 
milky  juice  from  which  the  celebrated  Japan  varnish  is  made.  The 
bamboo  is  used  for  all  the  common  purposes  of  life  ;  and  from  the 
soot  obtained  by  burning  the  shells  of  an  oily  nut  is  made  the  best 
Japanese  or  India  ink,  as  it  is  called.  The  people  are  extravagantly 
fond  of  flowers,  and  each  house  has  at  least  a  few  plants  in  pots. 
The  gardens  of  the  wealthy  are  elaborately  laid  out  with  groves,  arti- 
ficial cascades,  pagodas,  and  bridges.  The  whole  country  is  in  the 
highest  state  of  cultivation,  and  tlie  mountains  are  often  terraced  to 
their  summits.  Rice,  the  staple  food,  is  extensively  cultivated,  and 
tea,  one  of  the  chief  products,  is  largely  exported. 

There  are  none  of  the  larger  wild  animals  in  these  thickly  peopled 
islands.  Oxen  and  a  small  species  of  buffalo  are  kept  for  ploughing 
or  to  draw  carriages.  The  small  native  horses  are  much  used  for 
riding  where  the  roads  are  impassable  for  any  vehicle.  Fish  supply 
many  of  the  people  with  food,  and  little  fishing  hamlets  are  found  on 
the  shores  of  the  smaller  islands.  Birds  and  water-fowl  are  very  nu- 
merous ;  and  characteristic  of  tlie  country  is  the  crane,  or  stork, 
which,  together  with  the  sacred  tortoise,  is  often  represented  in 
carvings  on  temples,  and  in  bronze. 

People.  — These  islands  have  a  dense  population  of  about  thirty- 
five  millions,  according  to  the  first  published  census  of  1811  ;  and, 
as  far  back  as  we  know  anything  of  them,  the  people  had  reached  a 
considerable  degree  of  civilization,  having  largo  cities,  a  literature  of 
their  own,  and  manufactures  of  various  kinds. 

The  dress  of  all  ranks  is  similar  in  form,  differing  only  in  color  and 
material,  and  consists  of  one  or  more  loose  gowns,  fastened  at  the 
waist  with  a  wide  belt      The  sleeves  are  long  and  wide,  and  partly 

Questions.  —  What  does  the  Empire  of  Japan  iiicliuk!  ?    Descrilie  the  islands. 

What  is  said  of  Yeso?  What  is  said  of  minerals?  Of  the  climate  ?  What  are  the 
chief  proiUictions  ?  What  is  Indiaor.Iapane.se  ink?  What  is  the  condition  of  the 
country  as  to  agriculture  ?  What  are  the  common  animals  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
people  ?     Of  their  dress  ? 


A  .Japanese  View. 

closed  at  the  wrist  to  servo  as  pockets.  The  gowns  are  often  wad- 
ded, and  this  increases  the  general  clumsiness  of  appearance.  Both 
men  and  women  wear  silks  of  brilliant  colors,  usually  figured  or  em- 
broidered ;  and  the  men  wear  a  broad  scarf  or  band  over  the  shoulders, 
regulated  in  length  by  the  rank  of  the  wearer.  The  shoes  are  only 
clumsy  soles  of  closely  woven  straw,  or  of  wood,  which  are  kept  on 
by  a  band  over  the  foot,  or  by  merely  a  peg  between  the  toes. 

The  houses  are  low,  simple  in  form,  surrounded  by  verandas,  and 
have  projecting  tiled-roofs  supported  on  posts  and  beams  of  dark 
wood  carved  in  quaint  devices.  Rooms  are  partitioned  off  by  screens, 
or  sliding  doors,  made  of  bamboo  frames  and  paper ;  and  on  these 
paper  walls  are  painted  birds,  flowers,  or  scrolls,  in  India  ink  or  in 
colors.  The  floors  are  covered  with  mats  of  straw,  and  dusty  shoes 
are  always  removed  before  stepping  on  the  clean,  white  mat.  The 
bedding  is  brought  from  a  closet  at  night  and  spread  on  the  floor. 
The  Japanese  use  no  chairs,  nor  even  the  cushions  of  the  Turks,  but 
sit  squatting  on  their  feet. 

Though  Buddhism  has  been  regarded  as  the  national  religion, 
the  ancient  Sintooism  and  other  doctrines  prevail,  and  the  gov- 
ernment has  recently  removed  all  religious  restrictions.  The  nu- 
merous temples,  each  with  an  image  of  Buddha,  seated,  rise  amid 


Questions.  - 

temples  ? 


Describe  their  houses.     What  is  said  of  religion  ?     What  of  the 


ASIA. 


141 


Jap;UK'.s<'  builtliiig 

thick  groves  witliiu  sucred  enclosures,  approached  by  stone  steps 
and  gateways. 

Government.  —  Tlie  authcMitic  history  of  Japan  dates  back  to  660, 
B.  C.  The  Ernpci-or  is  styled  the  Mikado.  The  present  Mikado  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1 868.  His  pedigree  can  be  traced  back,  it  is 
said,  122  generations,  extending  over  a  period  of  more  than  2,000 
years.  If  these  stuteiiicnts  are  trustworthy,  the  ruling  dynasty  of 
Japan  is  the  oldest  under  the  sun.  About  300  years  ago,  a  powerful 
daiinio,  or  prince,  acquired  such  influence  that  he,  to  a  great  extent, 
controlled  tlie  adniinistratiou  of  the  government,  although  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Mikado  was  always  recognized,  and  no  edict  was 
valid  without  his  signature.  This  daiinio  was  known  to  the  Japanese 
under  the  title  of  Siii(jgun,  and  to  foreigners  as  the  Tycoon.  Since 
the  0])ening  of  Japan  to  foreign  intercourse,  the  Mikado  has  resumed 
his  authority.  The  Tycoon  was  at  first  disposed  to  resist,  but  was 
tlWiuvted,  and  his  office  abolished.  The  daimios  have  voluntarily  re- 
signed into  the  hands  of  the  Mikado  all  their  authority  and  revenues. 

Manukactures.  —  The  Japanese  excel  in  the  manufacture  of  gilt 
and  lacquer  ware, — bo.Kcs,  cabinets,  bowls,  trays,  and  plates.  They 
arc  als(j  expert  in  working  in  steel  and  bronze,  and  make  porcelain, 
cliiefly  in  tiie  form  of  jars  and  vases.  They  make  a  great  variety  of 
paper,  some  of  exquisite  texture.  Silk  is  extensively  manufactured 
and  exported,  though  it  is  not  so  fine  nor  so  durable  as  that  of  the 
Cliincse.  Recently  the  Japanese  have  opened  their  ports  to  foreign- 
ers, and  even  send  their  own  people  to  Europe  and  America  for  the 
purpose  of  introducing  machinery  and  new  metliods  of  manufacture, 
and  for  education. 

Cities.  —  Kioto,  or  Miako,  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Empire, 
and  the  residence  of  the  Mikado.  This  city  is  now  called  Saikio,  or 
Western  Capital,  and  Yedo  is  called  Tokio,  or  Eastern  Capital,  as 
the  Mikado  resides  partly  in  that  city  since  the  Tycoonato  was  abol- 
ished. Yedo,  the  chief  cky,  with  a  population  of  nearly  700,000, 
consists  of  three  parts,  — an  enclosure  containing  the  palaces  of  the 
Mikado  and  the  chief  nobles  ;  the  commercial  portion,  with  crowded 
streets;  and  wide  suburbs  covered  with  palaces,  gardens,  and  t(™- 
ples.  Yokohama,  the  great  centre  of  foreign  commerce,  is  about 
seventeen  miles  from  Yedo,  in  one  of  the  richest  portions  of  the 
Empire.  Half  the  town  consists  of  the  dwellings,  stores,  and  hos- 
pitals of  foreign  merchants,  and  an  extensive  trade  in  silk  is  carried 
on  Osaka,  a  large  commercial  city,  is  the  favorite  residence  of  the 
princes,  whose  palaces  and  well-kept  gardens  border  the  banks  of  the 


Questions.  —  How  far  buck  do  tin 
call  tlii-ir  Eiiipeior?     What  is  sjiid  of 


1  .lapanese  trace  their  history  ?  What  tlo  they 
-,  his  i)e(li;,Teo?  Of  the  Tycooiiate  ?  What  are 
the  priiR-iiial  mamifactures  ?  What  is  said  of  Kioto,  or  Miako  ?  Yedo?  Yokohama? 
Osaka? 


little  river.     Nagasaki,  on  the  island  of  Kiusiu,  has  a  fine  harbor. 
Hakodadi  is  the  most  northern  port  of  importance. 

SUMMARY. 

Japan  is  a  populous,  highly  cultivated  country,  producing  rice, 
bamboo,  and  the  silk-mulberry  tree,  with  trees  and  plants  of  the  tem- 
perate zone.  The  people  are  considerably  advanced  in  a  peculiar 
civilization  of  their  own,  manufacture  porcelain,  silk,  and  especially 
the  lacquer  fancy-work  for  which  they  are  noted.  /Recently  they  have 
opened  their  ports  to  foreign  trade,  and  are  introducing  modern  arts, 
machinery,  etc.  Yedo  is  the  principal  city,  and  Yokohama,  near  by, 
the  chief  foreign  seaport.  / 

INDIA. 

The  term  India,  or  "The  Indies,"  is  applied  to  the  two  large  penin- 
sulas of  Ilindostau  and  Fartlier  India,  with  the  neighboring  .islands, 
where  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Portuguese  have  important  posses- 
sions. The  climate  is  tropical  and  in  some  parts  very  unhealthy, 
owing  to  the  rank  vegetation  and  the  marshes  at  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers.  The  monsoons  prevail,  and  the  change  of  wind  twice  a  year 
is  accompanied  with  terrible  storms.  The  whole  region  is  character- 
ized by  a  rich  tropical  >iegetation,  —  thick  forests,  delicious  fruits  and 
spices,  — and  the  word  jungle  is  familiar  in  connection  with  India,  sig- 
nifying a  dense,  rank  growth,  either  of  forests  or  of  reeds  and  grasses. 

Productions.  —  Here,  as  in  China,  tiie  bamboo  is  common  and  in- 
dispensable to  the  people  for  building  and  for  various  other  purposes 
both  useful  and  ornamental.  The  rattan,  with  its  slender,  pliable 
stems,  is  also  largely  used  for  basket-work,  cordage,  etc.,  and  is  ex- 
ported to  other  countries.  Among  the  forest  trees  are  the  sago  and 
cocoa-nut  palms  ;  the  teak,  which  furnishes  the  hardest  and  best  of 
all  woods  for  ship-building ;  the  varnish-tree ;  the  gamboge-tree, 
which  yields  a  gum  for  bright  yellow  paint ;  the  mango  and  other 
fruit  trees  ;  the  fragrant  sandal  wood  ;  and,  belonging  especially  to 
India,  the  banyan,  a  singular  tree  of  great  size  and  beauty,  throwing 
off  shoots  from  its  lower  branches  which  tend  earthward  and  take 
root,  forming  of  one  tree  a  grove  large  enough  to  shade  several  Jiun- 
dred  people.  All  the  spices  —  cloves,  cinnamon,  nutmegs,  pepper, 
etc.  —  are  produced  abundantly,  especially  on  the  islands,  together 
with  ginger,  arrow-root,  and  cardamoms.  Rice  and  cotton  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated  all  over  the  country,  the  former  furnishing  food, 
and  the  latter  clothing  for  the  people.  A  native  laborer  with  his 
bowl  of  rice  and  his  cotton  garment  is  provided  with  the  necessaries 
of  life.  Among  other  important  productions  are  indigo,  sugar-cane, 
and  the  silk-mulberry. 

Animals. — Tigers  are  always  associated  with  the  jungles  of  In- 
dia. They  abound  in  the  thickets  north  of  the  Ganges,  and  tiger- 
hunting  is  a  national  amusement.  The  elephant  not  only  roams  the 
forests,  but  is  domesticated,  wearg  gay  trappings,  goes  to  war,  and 
promenades  the  city  streets  with  sober  dignity.  Oxen  and  a  small 
species  of  buffalo  are  used  for  ploughing  and  for  drawing  carts. 
Camels  are  used  by  travelling  merchants,  but  are  much  less  numer- 
ous than  in  Western  Asia.  The  Cashmere  goat,  so  famous  for  its 
fine  wool,  and  other  species  of  goats  are  found  in  the  mountain  prov- 
inces. Apes  and  monkeys  are  regarded  with  reverence  by  the  Hin- 
doos, and  sometimes  have  shrines  or  temples  dedicated  to  them 
India  abounds  with  venomcuis  serpents,  which  infest  the  hot  swamps 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  other  towns  1  What  is  undei-stood  by  the  Indies  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  climate  ?  Of  the  vegetation  ?  W^hat  arc  some  of  the  natural  pro- 
ductions ?    The  cultivated  products  ?    What  are  the  characteristic  animals  of  India  ? 


142 


OUR  WORLD. 


and  rank  grasses,  frequently  entering  the  bamboo-dwellings.  Pea- 
cocks and  other  birds  of  brilliant  plumage  are  native  here  ;  scorpions 
abound  ;  and  among  the  insects  are  centipedes,  the  lac-insect,  which 
produces,  chiefly  upon  the  twigs  of  the  banyan-tree,  the  resinous  lac 
used  in  varnish,  and  the  beautiful,  large  fireflies  that  flash  and  sparkle 
after  nightfall  like  gems. 

Gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones  abound  in  the  mountain-ridges, 
and  there  are  valuable  pearl-fisheries  along  the  coasts. 

Farther  India. —  The  eastern  peninsula  consists  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Siam,  Anam,  and  Birmah,  with  native  rulers  ;  but  the  English 
possess  a  part  of  Birmah,  and  the  French  a  part  of  Anam.  A  large 
number  of  Chinese  have  settled  along  the  shores  and  form  the  most 
industrious  portion  of  the  population,  the  foreign  commerce  being 
almost  entirely  in  their  hands.  The  peninsula  is  crossed  from  north  to 
south  by  spurs  from  the  Hiin.alaya  Mountains,  dividing  it  into  plains  or 
valleys,  nearly  corresponding  with  the  political  divisions,  an<l  watered 
by  largo,  navigable  rivers.     The  annual  overflow  of  these  rivers,  the 


Questions.  —  What  are  the  minerals  ? 
is  said  of  the  couiitiy  and  vegetation  ? 


Where  and  what  is  Farther  India  ?    What 


alluvial  soil  thus  formed,  and  the  tropical  climate  pro- 
duce a  dense  growth  of  forest  and  jungle,  and  the  culti- 
vated lands  yield  luxuriant  crops  of  rice  and  sugar-cane. 
Siam,  occupying  the  central  plain,  is  watered  by  the 
Menam,  and  the  population  is  collected  chiefly  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  great  river.  Its  banks  are  bordered 
by  towns  or  villages,  and  the  lowlands  surrounding  them 
are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  rice,  for  which  the  coun- 
try is  especially  noted.  Forest  trees,  bearing  gorgeous 
flowers  or  rich  tropical  fruits,  skirt  the  river  at  intervals, 
with  bamboo-huts  peeping  from  beneath  their  shade  ;  and 
tiny  boats,  gayly  painted  Chinese  junks,  and  vessels  of 
every  description  glide  up  and  down  the  stream. 

Bangkok,  the  capital,  is  built  partly  on  land  and  partly 
on  the  water.  The  river  and  canals  serve  as  highways, 
and  along  the  banks  are  lines  of  floating  shops  and 
dwellings,  mostly  of  bamboo.  The  Buddhist  religion 
pnivails  here,  as  in  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  all  magnifi- 
cence of  architecture  is  reserved  for  the  temples.  Those 
are  usually  massive  buildings  of  brick,  covered  with 
white  ccWent,  adorned  with  a  profusion  of  gilding,  porce- 
lain tik<s,  and  precious  stones,  and  containing  elaboiately 
carved  images  of  Buddha.  The  temples  and  dwellings 
of  the  numerous  priests  are  enclosed  in  quiet  groves, 
•which  rise  in  great  masses  of  foliage  above  the  city.  In 
a  quarter  by  themselves,  and  surrounded  by  a  wall,  are 
the  i)alaces  of  the  king,  various  public  offices,  military 
stations,  and  enclosures  for  the  famous  white  elephants 
of  Siam,  which  are  regarded  as  the  special  property  of 
the  royal  family.  Elephants  form  an  important  part  of 
tlic  army,  two  or  three  thousand  going  into  the  field  at 
once. 

As  is  usual  with  halfcivilized  nations,  the  king  and 
chief  men  are  surrounded  with  showy  pomp  and  mag- 
nificence, and  have  some  knowledge  of  the  world,  while 
the  great  mass  of  the  people  remain  in  abject  ignorance 
and  degradation,  prostrating  themselves  to  the  ground 
in  presence  of  a  superior.  Tiie  young  King  of  Siam, 
however,  shows  an  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  people, 
and  has  freed  the  slaves. 

The  common  dress  of  the  people  is  the  paiuuig,  or 
1  waist-cloth,  tied  about  the  loins,  so  as  to  resemble  short,  iuU  drawers. 
Persons  of  rank  often  wear  an  additional  shirt  of  silk  or  calico,  or 
even  some  garment  of  European  manufacture.  The  head  is  shaved, 
leaving  a  tuft  o(  hai^  hn  the  top.  Like  all  Orientals,  the  people  sit 
on  mats,  and  use  no  knives  or  forks.  The  Chinese  retain  their 
own  costume,  —  short  cotton  drawers,  a  shirt,  and  a  sharp-crowned 
straw  hat  The  Chinese  merchants  carry  on  a  brisk  trade  between 
India  and  China,  exchanging  ivory,  spices,  and  sugar  for  manufac- 
tured goods. 

The  other  divisions  of  Farther  India  are  similar  to  Siam  in  pro- 
ductions, customs,  and  condition.  Hue,  a  port  of  Anam,  resembles 
Bangkok,  but  is  not  so  large.  The  French  have  a  port  at  Saigon. 
Part  of  Birmah,  including  the  port  of  Rangoon,  now  belongs  to  the 
English.  The  long  Malayan  peninsula,  extending  southward  from 
Siam,  is  inhabited  by  an  almost  uncivilized  race  of  Mohammedans, 

Questions.  —  Where  is  Si.im  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Meiiani  and  its  banks?  Of 
Bangkok  ?  What  is  the  national  religion  ?  De.scri1)e  the  temples.  The  jialaces.  The 
peo]ile  and  their  dress.  Wliat  is  siiid  of  the  Chinese  merchants  ?  Of  other  coun- 
tries of  Farther  India  ?  Where  are  Hue  and  Saigon  ?  Where  is  Binnah  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Malay  peninsula  ! 


ASIA. 


143 


Temple  at  Bangkok. 

very  (lark  in  color,  whnse  dwellings,  like  those  of  many  of  the  neigh- 
boring islanders,  are  small  bamboo-huts  elevated  upon  piles.  The 
southern  extremity,  with  the  town  of  Malacca,  belongs  to  the  Eng- 
lish, and  exports  rice,  sago,  and  rattans. 


Malay  hut. 

British  India,  or  Hindostan.  —  India  was  once  regarded  as  a 
land  of  romance  and  enchantment  by  the  whole  civilized  world.  It 
suggested  marvellous  fruits  and  flowers,  temples  glittering  with  pre- 
cious stones,  elephants  with  gorgeous  trappings,  and  venomous  ser- 
pents coiling  harmlessly  about  their  tawny  magician  charmers. 
Dutch,  English,  and  Portuguese  were  alike  eager  to  take  part  in  the 
India  trade,  and,  notwithstanding  the  long  dangerous  voyage,  forts 
and  trading-stations,  which  have  since  grown  into  large  ports,  were 
established  along  the  Indian  Ocean  and  on  the  islands.  Among  these 
were  the  English  stations  on  the  coast  of  Hindostan.  The  story  of  the 
growth  of  these  settlements,  of  the  disputes  among  the  ill-governed 
native  tribes  in  which  the  English  took  part,  aiding  or  subduing  one 
king  after  another  until  they  gradually  came  to  be  the  ruling  power, 
is  a  very  long  one. 


Questions.  —  What  were  the  former  associations  with  India  ?    What  European 
nations  made  settlements  there  ?    What  is  said  of  them  1 


It  is  enough  now  to  say  that  the  British  rule  extends  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  that  a  large  standing  army  is  kept  in 
India,  and  that  thousands  of  English  have  made  homes  there.  There 
are  schools  in  England  where  young  men  of  the  best  families  are 
taught  the  language  and  government  atfairs  of  India,  that  they  may 
make  their  way  in  life  either  in  the  army  or  in  public  oflSces. 

Though  several  provinces  of  India  are  still  ruled  nominally  by  na- 
tive sovereigns,  their  power  is  not  very  great,  and  European  civiliza- 
tion is  gradually  extending  over  the  country. 

Government.  —  British  India  is  divided  into  the  presidencies  of 
Bombay,  Madras,  and  Bengal,  each  with  a  governor  or  president, 
subject  to  a  governor-general  who  resides  at  Calcutta.  Many  natives 
liave  been  drilled  with  the  English  soldiers,  and  make  a  considerable 
part  of  the  army  in  India  under  the  name  of  sepoys. 

Natives.  — ^  The  native  Hindoos  are  slender  in  form,  and  of  a  yel- 
low-brown color.  They  are  a  peculiar  people,  strongly  bound  by 
long-established  customs  and  traditions,  which  regulate  all  affairs  of 
religious  and  social  life,  and  from  which  there  is  no  escape.  There 
are  four  distinct  social  grades,  or  castes:  1,  Brahmins,  or  priests, 
who  enjoy  the  highest  privileges,  and  have  unbounded  influence  over 
the  people  ;  2,  princes  and  warriors  ;  3,  merchants  and  artisans  ; 
4,  soodras,  or  laborers.  Only  those  of  the  same  caste  can  inter- 
marry, eat  together,  or  associate  intimately  ;  and  the  stable-boy  who 
pi-ostrates  himself  in  the  dust  before  his  English  master  would  starve 
rather  than  cat  with  that  master.  The  few  who  fail  to  keep  these  re- 
quirements, "  lose  caste,"  are  rejected  by  their  nearest  kindred,  and 
become  pariahs,  or  outcasts. 

The  religion  of  the  country  is  Brahminism,  or  the  worship  of  one 
great  spirit,  Brahm,  commonly  represented  under  three  forms,  — 
Brahma,  the  creator  ;  Siva,  the  destroyer  ;  and  Vishnu,  the  preserver. 
The  better  class  of  Brahmins  are  men  of  intelligence,  who  recognize 
only  the  invisible  spirit ;  but  the  mass  of  the  people,  ignorant  and 
degraded,  worship  many  divinities  in  the  form  of  hideous  idols. 
Temples  and  shrines  are  numerous,  and  though  human  sacrifices  are 
now  forbidden  by  the  English  government,  fanatics  frequently  burn, 
gash,  and  otherwise  torture  themselves  ;  and  the  fakirs,  or  devotees 
who  beg  through  the  streets  of  every  city,  are  regarded  as  saints.  The 
Ganges  River  is  considered  sacred,  and  pilgrims  come  from  all  parts  of 
the  country  to  bathe  in  its  waters.  The  Brahmins  encourage  these 
superstitions,  and  have  the  benefit  of  the  numerous  offerings  brought 
to  the  temples.  A  singular  part  of  the  religion  is  a  belief  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls  after  death  into  the  bodies  of  animals,  to  live 
through  another  term  of  probation  on  earth.  The  cow  and  the  mon- 
key are  held  sacred.  The  scriptures  of  the  Hindoos  are  books  of 
great  antiquity,  called  the  Vedas.  There  is  quite  a  large  Moham- 
medan population  in  India,  and  their  beautiful  mosques,  often  con- 
structed of  dazzlingly  white  marble,  are  in  strong  contrast  to  the  gray 
stone,  ebony,  and  dark  woods  used  in  building  the  Hindoo  temples, 
which  are  elaborately  carved  and  richly  ornamented.  DifiTerent  Chris- 
tian sects  have  established  missions  in  various  parts  of  India,  and 
zealous  missionaries  are  einleavoring  to  improve  the  religious  and 
social  condition  of  the  natives. 

The  Hindoos  carry  on  a  variety  of  manufactures,  and  with  only  the 
simplest  implements  produce  the  finest  fabrics  of  cotton,  wool,  and 
silk.     Among  the  cotton  fabrics  are  plain  white  cloth  for  the  common 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  British  power  in  India  ?  Of  the  native  sovereigns  ? 
Of  the  government  of  British  India  ?  Describe  the  Hindoos.  What  is  said  of  castes  ? 
What  is  the  national  religion  ?  What  are  the  three  principal  divinities  1  What  of 
the  better  class  of  Brahmins  ?  Of  the  religion  of  the  common  people  ?  What  are  the 
Vedas  ?  What  of  the  Mohammedans  in  India !  The  missionaries  ?  What  are  the 
manufactures  of  the  Hindoos  ? 


144 


OUR  WORLD. 


Serpent-charming. 

dress  of  the  people  throughout  the  country ;  the  fine  India  muslin, 
remarkable  for  the  smoothness  and  delicacy  of  its  threads  ;  white 
twill  or  India  cloth  ;  and  printed  cotton-cloth,  usually  figured  with 
gay  colors,  and  called  calico  from  the  town  of  Calicut.  The  costly 
India  shawls  and  scarfs  are  woven  of  the  wool  of  Cashmere  and 
Thibet,  the  deep,  many-colored  borders  being  made  by  hand  in  small 
pieces,  and  sewed  together  with  great  labor  and  patience.  Carpets, 
or  rather  rugs,  are  also  made,  similar  to  those  of  Persia.  Check  silks, 
crepes,  and  gauzes  are  manufactured,  and  a  costly  fabric  of  silk  and 
wool,  embroidered  with  gold  thread,  which  is  used  extensively  in 
those  Eastern  countries  for  loose  robes  and  trousers.  Many  of  the 
natives  are  skilful  as  lapidaries,  jewellers,  and  carvers. 

The  Country.  —  Physically,  Hindostan  consists  of  a  southern  table- 
land, called  the  Deccan,  and  the  northern  plain  of  the  Ganges.  The 
triangular  plateau  of  the  Deccan,  bordered  on  the  sides  by  the  East 
and  West  Ghauts,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Vindya  Hills,  is  compar- 
atively bare  and  rugged,  less  fertile  than  other  parts  of  the  country, 

Qaestions.  —  Into  what  two  physical  regions  is  Hindostan  divided  ?    What  is  said 
.of  the  Deccan  ? 


but  containing  within  its  rocky  ridges  inexhaustible  wealth  of  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones,  and  the  famous  mines  of  Golconda,  which 
liave  yielded  diamonds  for  centuries.  The  Ghauts  descend  in  a  suc- 
cession of  rough,  jagged  terraces,  leaving  narrow  strips  of  lowland 
along  the  coasts.  The  western  or  Malabar  coast  bears  a  tropical 
vegetation,  with  forests  of  teak  and  palms  on  the  mountain-slopes. 

On  this  coast  stands  Bombay,  the  chief  commercial  port  of  India, 
and  the  terminus  of  the  regular  lino  of  British  steamers.  As  in  all  the 
larger  cities  of  India,  there  is  a  crowded  native  town,  and  an  open, 
pleasant  English  quarter  in  the  suburbs.  The  streets  of  the  native 
town  are  narrow  and  dirty,  and  the  houses  are  usually  of  two  stories, 
with  dark  wooden  verandahs  in  front.  Toward  the  north  rises  Mala- 
bar Hill,  overlooking  the  sea,  and  covered  with  gardens  and  villas  of 
European  and  wealthy  native  merchants.  There  are  fine  drives  for 
miles  along  the  shore,  with  the  sea  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  a 
mass  of  tropical  foliage  interspersed  with  the  tents  or  bamboo  cot- 
tages of  the  soldiers,  and  here  and  there  gateways  opening  into  the 
grounds  of  some  suburban  palace,  and  showing  the  distant  verandah 
and  flowering  plants  of  great  beauty.  On  a  small  island  near  the 
coast  is  the  ancient  temple  of  Elephanta,  whose  pillared  chambers 
are  excavated  in  the  rock  of  the  hillside.  A  railroad  now  runs  from 
Bombay  to  Calcutta,  but  formerly  the  only  means  of  transportation 
was  by  the  clumsy  bullock-carts  which  still  go  jolting  over  many 
parts  of  the  country.  There  are  no  inns  along  these  roads,  but  at 
intervals  public  bungaloivs,  low,  square  buildings  of  bamboo  and 
thatch,  where  travellers  may  rest  and  provide  for  themselves. 

As  a  general  thing  the  Hindoo  dwellings,  whether  palace  or  hovel, 
are  meanly  built,  sometimes  of  stone  or  sun-dried  brick,  oftener  of 


ilinduo  ilou^es. 


mud  and  bamboo.  They  are  of  one  or  two  stories,  often  roofed  with 
thatch  or  tiles,  and  seldom  without  verandahs  or  balconies.  The 
effect  is  always  sombre,  owing  to  the  curiously  carved  posts  and 
railings  of  dark  wood. 

The  eastern  or  Coromandel  coast  is  sandy,  dry,  and  sterile,  and  the 
salt-trade  is  the  only  occupation  along  the  shore,  except  at  the  large 
port  of  Madras,  a  city  with  a  population  of  three  or  four  hundred  thou- 
sand, and  for  a  long  time  the  great  centre  of  an  immense  cotton-trade. 
Since  the  introduction  of  cheaper  cotton  goods  from  England  its 
manufactures  have  declined.  Farther  up  the  coast  stands  the  cele- 
brated temple  of  Juggernauth,  in  the  midst  of  a  hot,  sandy  plain. 
The  huge  pyramid  is  visible  from  a  great  distance,  and  the  road  is 
thronged  with  pilgrims,  who  shout  aloud  and  prostrate  themselves  at 
the  first  sight  of  the  shrine. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  Golconda  ? 
Describe  Bombay.  Describe  Hindoo  houses. 
Madras  ?    Of  Juggernauth  ? 


Of  the  Chants  ?    Of  the  west  coast  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  east  coast  ?    Of 


ASIA. 


145 


Plain  of  the  Ganges.  — This  vast  northern  plain,  watered  by  the 
Ganges  and  its  branches,  is  the  most  populous  part  of  India.  Noth- 
ing can  exceed  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  luxuriance  of  vegeta- 
tion. Immense  tracts  of  dense,  almost  impassable  jungle,  infested 
by  tigers,  extend  beyond  the  river  toward  the  Himalaya  Mountains, 
and  broad,  cultivated  fields  alternate  with  groves  of  the  favorite 
mango  and  other  fruit  trees,  or  with  numei'ous  cities  and  villages. 
Here  are  the  great  indigo  plantations,  under  the  direction  of  the 
English,  from  which  more  indigo  is  exported  than  from  any  other 
country  in  the  world.  Large  quantities  of  poppies  are  also  cultivated 
to  make  opium. 


Opium  Poppy. 

The  large,  marshy  district  formed  by  the  united  deltas  of  the  Gan- 
ges and  Brahmapootra  is  covered  with  forests  and  jungles  of  bam- 
boo and  mangroves.  Except  the  drained  rice-lands,  little  of  the 
country  is  cultivated.  These  unhealthy  marshes  are  called  "  bunds," 
hence  the  frequent  use  of  the  word  in  connection  with  names  of  places. 

Calcutta,  the  capital  and  residence  of  the  governor-general  of 
India,  contains  a  large  English  population.  The  city  stands  on  the 
Iloogly,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  about  one  hundred  miles 
from  the  sea,  just  beyond  the  delta.  South  of  the  narrow,  crooked 
streets  of  the  native  town  extends  a  broad  esplanade,  and  the  Eng- 
lish town  with  its  warehouses,  churches,  colleges,  and  handsome 
government  buildings  of  stone  and  white  marble.  Long,  shady  ave- 
nues pass  through  the  suburbs,  bordered  by  magnificent  residences 
and  by  military  bungalows  embowered  in  foliage  and  flowers. 

Questions.  —  Describe  the  plain  of  the  Ganges.  What  are  bunds  ?  Describe  Cal- 
cutta. 


Benares,  the  holy  city  of  India,  is  situated  on  a  sharp  bend  of  the 
Ganges,  so  that  from  the  opposite  shore  the  whole  of  the  vast  city, 
with  its  numerous  temples  of  great  beauty,  is  seen  at  a  glance,  rising- 
terrace  above  terrace  on  the  semicircular  slope  of  the  hill,  and  re- 
flected in  the  broad  surface  of  the  river.  Crowds  of  pilgrims  and 
begging/a^Vs  fill  the  city,  and  flights  of  stone  steps  lead  down  into 
the  Ganges  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  bathe  in  its  waters. 
Sacred  bulls  walk  unmolested  through  the  narrow  streets,  and  mon- 
keys, sacred  to  the  ape-idol,  cling  to  the  roofs  of  the  temples  and 
snatch  fruit  from  the  baskets  of  fruit-sellers,  or  even  from  the  hands  of 
children. 

In  Delhi,  the  former  magnificent  capital  of  the  Mohammedans  in 
India,  may  be  seen  people  of  every  class  and  nation,  —  princes  on 
gayly  caparisoned  elephants;  fierce-looking^ country  chiefs  on  horse- 
back ;  travelling  merchants  on  camels  ;  long-bearded  Afghans  with 
black,  treacherous  eyes  ;  and  grave  Persians  in  their  dress  of  pure 
white,  with  crimson  or  yellow  caps.  Delhi  is  famous  for  its  shawls 
and  scarfs. 

Lucknow  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  cities  of  India,  and  makes  a  fine 
appearance  with  its  gilded  domes,  balconies,  fountains,  and  gardens. 

The  Himalaya  Mountains.  —  On  the  northern  border  of  India  rises 
the  loftiest  mountain-range  on  the  globe,  with  numerous  peaks  be- 
tween five  and  six  miles  high.  Guarisanker,  called  also  Mount  Ever- 
est, is  the  highest  yet  measured.  The  whole  range  is  exceedingly 
wild  and  rugged,  with  deep  valleys  and  high,  dangerous  passes. 
The  lower  slopes  are  covered  with  thick  forests,  and  the  higher  sum- 
mits arc  shrouded  in  clouds  and  perpetual  snow. 

Cashmere,  a  beautiful  valley  of  the  lower  Himalayas,  is  famous  for 
goats  bearing  the  fine  Cashmere  wool.  Koses  are  cultivated  here  for 
making  perfume. 

The  Punjab,  or  Five  Kivers,  is  the  name  given  to  the  northwest 
province  of  Hindostan,  a  well-watei-ed  and  populous  district,  contain- 
ing many  manufacturing  towns. 

The  Desert  of  Scinde,  a  sandy  waste  east  of  the  Indus,  is  a  singular 
exception  to  the  general  fertility  of  the  northern  plain. 

Islands. —  British  India  also  includes  Ceylon,  Singapore-,  and 
parts  of  other  islands  south  of  Asia.  A  striking  feature  of  all 
this  region  is  the  appearance  of  English  ports,  with  English  houses, 
carriages,  and  men  and  women  in  European  costume,  in  the  midst  of 
the  tropical  vegetation,  bamboo  houses,  temples,  and  dark-skinned 
inhabitants. 

Ceylon,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  islands,  has  been  long 
famous  for  its  spices  and  pearls.  Most  of  the  island  is  a  garden  of 
luxuriant  vegetation.  Fruit-trees  blossom  under  the  tall  palms,  betel- 
plants  creep  up  the  great  trunks,  and  spices  and  flowering  shrubs 
grow  in  the  greatest  perfection.  A  shore-road  runs  around  the  island, 
more  than  seven  hundred  miles  long,  sometimes  shaded  by  cocoa- 
palms,  sometimes  passing  through  groves  of  bread-fruit,  tamarinds, 
and  pomegranates. 

Colombo,  the  capital,  contains  a  motley  population  from  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  in  the  evening  the  shore-road  is  crowded  with  car- 
riages, palanquins,  and  horsemen  with  native  grooms  in  gay  costume. 

The  gi-eator  part  of  the  island  is  occupied  by  plantations,  chiefly 
of  cofi'ce  and  cinnamon,  but  also  of  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  cocoa- 
nut  palms  for  making  oil.  The  pearl-fisheries  of  Ceylon  are  the  most 
valuable  in  the  world,  and  employ  a  large  number  of  boats  and  divers. 

Singapore,  a  small  island  south  of  the  Malayan  peninsula,  is  not  so 

Questions — Describe  Benares.  Delhi.  Lucknow.  The  Himalaya  Mountains. 
Where  is  Cashmere  ?  The  Punjab  ?  The  Desert  of  Scinde  ?  What  islands  belong  to 
the  English  ?    What  is  said  of  Ceylon  ?    Of  the  chief  city  ?    Of  Singapore  ? 


146 


OUR  WORLD. 


fertile  as  many  of  the  other  islands,  but  is  valuable  as  a  trading-depot, 
and  there  is  a  large  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  sago.  As 
in  most  of  tiie  English  settlements,  the  town  is  surrounded  by  ele- 
gant villas  and  gardens. 

SUMMARY. 

The  Indies  include  Hindostan,  Farther  India,  and  the  neighboring 
islands,  and  have  a  tropical  climate  and  luxuriant  vegetation,  vi'ith 
large  tracts  of  dense  jungle.  The  most  characteristic  productions 
are  bamboo,  cotton,  rice,  indigo,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  and  spices.  The 
common  animals  are  the  tiger,  elephant,  venomous  serpents,  peacocks, 
and  other  birds  of  brilliant  plumage. 

Farther  India  consists  of  the  kingdoms  of  Siam,  Anara,  and 
Birmah,  belonging  to  halF-civilized  races,  but  including  a  large  popu- 
lation of  Chinese  who  settled  in  the  country  for  purposes  of  trade. 
The  English  have  possessions  in  Birmah,  and  the  French  in  Anam. 

Hindostan,  the  western  part  of  Farther  India,  and  Ceylon  and 
other  islands  are  in  possession  of  the  English,  and  known  as  British 
India. 

The  native  Hindoos  are  divided  into  four  social  castes,  and  the  re- 
quirements of  their  religion,  Brahminism,  forbid  them  to  eat  or 
intermarry  with  those  of  another  caste,  or  with  foreigners.  The  peo- 
ple, generally,  are  ignorant  and  degraded  ;  but  the  better  class  of 
Brahmins,  or  priests,  are  intelligent,  educated  men.  The  Hindoos 
manufacture,  with  simple  implements,  muslins,  calicoes,  silks,  shawls, 
and  carpets. 

The  cities  are  numerous  and  large,  often  consisting  of  a  crowded 
native  town  and  a  suburban  English  town  of  villas  and  gardens. 
There  is  a  considerable  English  population,  and  young  men  in  Eng- 
land are  educated  for  places  in  the  government  or  army  of  British 
India. 

TURKESTAN. 

Turkestan,  the  low  region  around  the  sea  of  Aral,  is  mostly  a  wild, 
sterile  waste.  Much  of  the  gravelly  soil  is  unfit  for  cultivation,  and 
there  are  no  forests  except  on  the  mountains  near  its  borders.  The 
sea  of  Aral  is  shallow,  has  no  outlet,  and  is  of  no  use  for  navigation. 
Several  streams  flow  into  it  through  marshy  deltas,  but  the  country, 
generally,  is  dry. 

Turkestan  forms  the  link  between  Turkey  and  Persia  on  the  south 
and  the  Tartars  on  the  north,  and  its  inhabitants  belong  to  a  variety 
of  races,  though  they  are  mostly  Mohammedans  in  religion.  Some 
are  nomads,  some  pastoral,  and  some  live  in  cities.  There  are  fertile 
oases,  and  the  towns  are  surrounded  by  groves  and  gardens,  the 
products  being  chiefly  grains  and  fruits,  which  thrive  well. 

The  towns  themselves  are  poorly  built  of  wood  and  sun-dried 
brick,  and  are  only  important  as  trading-depots,  where  the  caravans 
from  the  East  meet  merchants  of  Western  countries.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  towns  manufacture  silk  and  woollen  goods  for  their  own  use, 
especially  the  mixture  of  silk  and  wool  so  generally  worn  in  the  East. 
They  also  make  good  knives  and  sabres,  and  understand  dressing 
skins  and  preparing  leather. 

Samarcand,  in  the  province  of  Bokhara,  famous  among  the  East- 
ern story-tellers  of  old  times  for  its  magnificence  and  power,  is  now 
a,  city  of  ruins  and  of  modern  ill-built  houses.  The  only  building  of 
importance  is  the  tomb  of  the  great  Timour,  the  Tartar  chief  Khiva 
13  a  similar  city  with  mud-walls,  narrow  streets,  gardens,  and  groves. 

Questions.  —  Where  is  Turkestan  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  the  country  ?  What 
.•;ea  and  rivers  lias  it  ?  What  inliabitants  ?  What  productions  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
towns  ?     Of  Samarcand  ?    Khiva  ? 


Government.  — There  are  several  provinces,  —  Bokhara,  Khiva,  and 
others,  each  with  an  absolute  ruler  or  chief;  while  toward  the  north 
roam  the  great  tribes  of  the  Kirghiz  Tartars,  touching  the  Russian 
borders. 

AFGHANISTAN  AND   BELOOCHISTAN. 

As  Turkestan  is  an  intermediate  step  between  Turkey  and  Russia, 
so  these  small  countries  connect  Mohammedan  Persia  with  India  ; 
and,  though  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  wild  Mohammedan  tribes, 
communities  of  Hindoo  merchants  are  found  in  the  towns  of  the  south 
and  east. 

This  region,  which  forms  the  eastern  part  of  the  plateau  of  Iran, 
coBsists  generally  of  mountains,  rocks,  and  deserts,  and  the  high 
peaks  of  Afghanistan  are  covered  with  snow.  The  mountains  are 
well  supplied  with  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron,  and  often  well 
wooded.  Between  the  mountains  are  fertile  valleys  and  plains, — 
partly  cultivated,  partly  covered  with  date-trees  and  acacias,  and 
near  the  towns  with  orchards  and  mulberry-groves. 

Little  attention  is  given  to  agriculture,  but  as  a  fruit  country, 
Afghanistan  is  unsurpassed  ;  peaches,  apricots,  and  melons  are 
especially  fine.  The  climate  varies  like  the  vegetation  ;  the  northern 
provinces  having  snow  for  three  months,  while  in  many  other  parts 
the  long  summer  heat  averages  from  90°  to  95°  Fahrenheit. 

Government.  — There  is  no  central  government,  but  each  province 
or  tribe  has  its  chief.  In  the  towns  there  are  cadis,  or  judges,  but 
their  power  is  not  great ;  and  throughout  the  country  travellers  are 
exposed  to  plunder,  or  the  imposition  of  tribute  by  the  fierce  nomads. 

Towns.  —  Of  the  ill-built,  dirty  towns  the  most  important  are  Herat 
and  Caboul.  Herat,  the  centre  of  trade,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has 
about  40,000  inhabitants,  many  of  them  Hindoos  and  other  foreign 
merchants.  Caboul,  near  one  of  the  mountain-passes,  is  a  rendezvous 
for  caravans. 

The  manufactures  are  coarse  woollen  shawls,  carpets,  skin-caps, 
and  a  few  small  articles.  The  prosperity  of  the  towns  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  caravan-trade  across  the  country. 

PERSIA. 

Persia,  or  the  western  part  of  the  plateau  of  Iran,  has  been  de- 
scribed as  "consisting  of  two  parts,  —  1,  a  desert  with  salt;  2,  a 
desert  without  salt."  Though  this  is  rather  an  exaggeration,  the 
general  appearance  of  the  country  is  extremely  barren,  and  one  may 
pass  over  wretched  roads  for  many  miles  without  seeing  a  dwelling, 
or  even  a  blade  of  grass,  and  wonder  if  this  could  have  been  the  land 
of  Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Xerxes,  with  their  mighty  armies.  The  soil, 
however,  is  good  in  many  parts,  and  much  of  the  barrenness  is  owing 
only  to  excessive  dryness,  since  there  are  no  rivers,  and  little  rain 
falls.  Tartar  hordes  from  the  north  have  overrun  the  land  many 
times  since  the  days  of  ancient  greatness,  and  Persia  is  now  for  tlie 
most  part  a  desolate  plain,  here  and  there  incrusted  with  salt,  and 
crossed  by  rocky  ridges.  The  great  salt  desert  in  the  centre  is 
four  hundred  miles  long  and  more  than  half  as  wide. 

In  some  favored  parts  various  aromatic  shrubs  thrive  well,  and 
around  the  cities,  where  irrigation  is  carefully  managed,  this  wilder- 
ness is  made  to  "blossom  like  the  rose,"  and  beautiful  flowers  and 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  government  ?  Where  are  Afghanistan  and  Belooohis- 
tan  ?  What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  ?  Describe  the  country.  The  mountains. 
Agriculture  and  productions.  Clhnate.  Government.  What  is  said  of  towns  ?  Of 
Herat  ?  Of  Caboul  ?  Of  manufactures  and  trade  ?  Describe  the  appearance  of  Per- 
sia.    What  of  the  salt  desert  1    Where  and  how  is  cultivation  ciirriod  on  ? 


ASIA. 


/ 


147 


delicious  fruits  are  produced  in  abundance,  —  peaches,  which  are  na- 
tive here,  apples,  plums,  apricots,  and  the  finest  melons  in  the  world. 
Hyacinths,  tulips,  tuberoses,  and  other  bulbous  plants  grow  wild. 
Vineyards,  wheat,  and  barley  are  cultivated  around  the  largo  villages. 
Every  means  of  irrigation  is  resorted  to,  and  great  labor  expended  to 
produce  these  rare,  bright  spots. 

The  plains  are  intersected  with  underground  aqueducts,  beginning 
in  the  mountain-springs.  These  kenals,  as  they  are  called,  are  of 
such  importance  that  it  is  considered  a  very  meritorious  work  to 
have  constructed  one,  and  a  wealthy  Mohammedan  often  eases  his 
conscience  by  building  an  aqueduct,  as  penitents  in  the  Middle  Ages 
erected  churches  or  monasteries.  Various  little  canals  pass  through 
the  cities,  and  are  often  rented  by  gardeners  for  large  sums. 

The  mountainous  provinces  in  the  north,  bordering  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  are  deliglitful  contrasts  to  the  rest  of  Persia.  Streams  are 
abundant,  the  mountains  are  covered  with  forests,  and  fertile  valleys 
produce  grain,  mulberry-trees,  and  cotton  enough  for  the  use  of  the 
people. 

Cities. — Like  other  Oriental  cities,  those  of  Persia  are  beautiful 
in  the  distance,  embowered  amidst  gardens  and  orchards,  but  lose 
their  beauty  on  a  near  approach.  The  low,  irregular  houses  are  all 
built  of  unburnt,  unpainted  brick,  and  have  no  windows  on  the 
street;  but  are  large,  comfortable,  often  well  furnished,  and  much 
more  inviting  within  than  without. 

Teheran,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  desolate  plain, 
several  miles  south  of  the  Elburz  Mountains,  and  the  inhabitants 
avoid  the  heat  and  unhealthy  atmosphere  during  a  part  of  the  year 
by  rusticating  in  the  beautiful  mountain-province  northward.  Ispa- 
han was  formerly  the  capital  and  most  populous  city.     Tabreez  is  one 


of  the  largest  and  busiest  cities,  —  the  centre  of  trade  between  Tur- 
key, Russia,  and  Central  Persia.  Shiraz,  on  a  plain  in  the  southern 
part  of  Persia,  is  famous  for  its  rose  gardens,  planted  for  making 
perfumes.     Bushire  is  the  chief  port,  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Inhabitants. — Most  of  the  people  are  Mohammedans,  and  their 
customs  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Turks.  Persia  is  goveraed  by  a 
Shah,  or  king  ;  but  the  government  is  not  very  well  ordered,  and  re- 
bellions arc  frequoflt.  A  large  part  of  the  population  has  perished 
of  famine  in  recent  years. 

Nowhere  did  the  followers  of  Mohammed  have  such  difficulty  in 
establishing  their  religion  as  among  these  "  Fire-worshippers,"  as  the 
Persians  were  called.  The  contest  was  long  and  terrible,  and  the 
hatred  between  the  two  peoples  became  bitter  in  proportion.  Some 
of  the  old  Persians  clung  to  their  religion  through  much  persecution. 
Many  fled  from  the  country  during  the  Moslem  invasion,  and  their 
descendants,  now  living  in  Bombay,  form  one  of  the  most  respectable 
and  thriving  portions  of  the  community.     They  are  called  Parsees. 

The  Persians  wear  the  usual  Eastern  costume,  with  some  national 
peculiarities.  Officers  of  the  army  have  adoj^ted  partially  the 
European  dress. 

Trade.  —  The  trade  of  Persia  is  carried  on  with  the  East  by  cara- 
vans, with  Russia  through  the  Caspian  provinces,  and  with  Europe 
through  Bassora  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  manufactures  are  silk 
goods,  not  of  the  finest  kind,  which  go  mostly  to  Turkey,  shawls 
of  fine  goats'  hair,  carpets,  and  felts.  Beside  these  manufactured 
goods,  excellent  dried  fruits  and  perfumes  are  exported,  and  a  variety 
of  drugs  and  gums, — assafcetida,  safi'ron,  madder,  and  gall-nuts. 
Sulphur,  naphtha,  and  similar  products  of  the  desert  are  also  ex- 
ported. 


MOHAMMEDAN    OOUI^^TRIES. 


OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  seventh  century  Mohammed,  an  Arabian, 
belonging  to  a  prominent  family  at  Mecca,  declared  himself  divinely 
commissioned  to  teach  God's  will,  and  prepared  a  sacred  book  called 
the  Koi'an.  Mohammed  had  much  difficulty  in  making  his  first  con- 
verts, and  for  years  the  number  of  believers  was  small  ;  but  at  his 
death  he  left  an  enthusiastic  partj'  of  followers,  devoted  to  the  faith, 
and  determined  to  establish  it  by  force  of  arms.  As  immediate  and 
perfect  happiness  in  a  heaven  of  delights  was  promised  to  all  who 
should  die  for  the  faith,  the  Mohammedan  armies  strengthened  rapid- 
ly, not  only  in  numbers,  but  in  an  eager  fanaticism  which  nothing 
could  withstand.  Their  success  was  marvellous,  and  before  many 
years  the  Mohammedan  dominion  extended  from  Persia  through 
North  Africa  to  Spain  ;  and  during  the  seventh  century  the  Arab,  or 
Saracen  nation  became  the  most  powerful  and  brilliant  amonpj  the 
nations  of  that  time.  Mohammed  had  made  himself  the  heau  of 
government,  as  well  as  of  religion,  and  his  successors  ruled  absolutely 
under  the  name  of  caliphs,  holding  their  courts  at  Bagdad.  The 
Arabs  have  since  declined  as  a  nation,  and  now  the  name  is  associ- 
ated chiefly  with  the  wandering  Bedouins. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  teaches  belief  in  one  God,  Allah,  and 
Mohammed   his   prophet.     Among   the  chief  duties  taught   by  the 

Questions.  —  What  are  the  productions  ?  What  is  said  of  imgation  ?  Of  the 
Ca3t)iaii  provinces  ?  Describe  the  cities.  What  is  said  of  Teheran  ?  Ispalian  ? 
Tabreez  ?    Shiraz  ?    Of  the  people  and  government  ?    Of  religion  ?    Who   are  the 


Koran  are  prayer,  almsgiving,  fasting,  and  pilgrimage.  Every  true 
believer  is  expected  to  make  at  least  one  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  The 
Koran  gives  many  directions  about  the  common  affairs  of  life,  which 
are  carefully  obeyed  by  all  Mohammedans.  The  mosques,  or  churches, 
are  numerous  in  every  city,  and  are  easily  recognized  by  their  domes 
and  tall,  slender  towers,  called  minarets.  Three  times  a  day  the  call 
to  prayer  is  proclaimed  from  the  minarets  of  every  Mohammedan  city, 
and  nothing  can  be  more  impressive,  in  the  midst  of  busy  daily  life, 
than  the  sudden,  sonorous  chant  from  the  roofs  of  fifty  mosques, 
"There  is  no  God  but  God!  Mohammed  is  the  prophet  of  God." 
Manners  and  customs  thus  directed  by  religion  do  not  change  easily, 
hence  those  Eastern  nations  do  now  what  their  ancestors  did  hundreds 
of  years  ago. 

The  Turks  were  originally  fierce,  rude  tribes  beyond  the  Caspian 
Sea,  who  made  their  way  westward,  while  the  successors  of  Moham- 
med were  establishing  the  Mohammedan  religion  and  dominion  in  all 
the  region  around.  The  Turks  embraced  this  faith,  and,  famous  for 
their  fierce  bravery,  were  gladly  received  into  the  armies  of  the 
caliphs,  where  they  became  constantly  more  numerous  and  powerful, 
and  finally  superseded  the  Arabs.  Crossing  into  Europe  they  cap- 
tured Constantinople  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  that 
city  became  the  most  important  seat  of  the  Mohammedan  power. 

Parsees  ?  What  is  said  of  dress  ?  Trade  ?  Manufactures  ?  Exports  ?  Who  was 
Mohammed  ?  What  is  his  story  ?  What  became  of  his  party  after  his  death  ?  Who 
were  the  caliphs  ?  What  does  the  Mohammedan  religion  teach  ?  W^hat  are  mosques  ? 
Minarets  ?    What  is  the  call  to  prayer  ?    Who  were  the  Turks  ? 


148 


OUR  WORLD. 


The  Ottoman  Empire  now  includes  much  of  South- 
western Asia  (Turkey,  Syria,  and  part  of  Arabia) 
and  most  of  North  Africa,  together  with  the  large 
country  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  The  whole  Empire 
is  ruled  by  one  Sultan,  who  has  his  court  at  Con- 
stantinople. The  Sultan  is  aided  by  a  minister,  or 
vizier,  and  there  is  a  general  State  Council.  Each 
country  has  a  pasha,  or  governor,  who  is  responsible 
to  the  Sultan,  and  can  be  removed  by  him  at  any 
time.  Under  these  are  imaums,  or  ministers  of  wor- 
ship, muftis,  or  expounders  of  the  law,  and  cadis;  or 
judges.  All  these  directors,  both  of  government  and 
religion,  are  guided  by  the  precepts  of  the  Koran. 

People.  —  Though  the  Turks  and  Arabs  are  the 
most  numerous,  there  are  many  varieties  of  race  and 
tribe  in  the  Empire,  with  picturesque  differences  of 
costume  ;  but  through  all  there  is  a  prevailing  effect 
of  flowing  robes,  bearded,  turbaned  men,  and  veiled 
women.  In  social  progress  these  people  are  less  ad- 
vanced than  the  nations  of  the  West.  The  laboring 
classes  are  much  oppressed,  and  often  entirely  at 
the  mercy  of  the  governors,  judges,  or  others  in  au- 
thority. The  women  hold  a  very  inferior  position  ; 
and  a  man  may  have  several  wives,  many  of  whom 
are  bought  as  slaves.  A  part  of  each  house  is  fitted 
up  for  the  harem,  or  women's  apartments  ;  and  to  the 
harems  of  the  wealthy  large  gardens  are  usually  at- 
tached. The  Turks  have  no  chairs,  but  sit  on  cush- 
ions with  their  feet  crossed  under  them,  and  shoes 
are  always  left  at  the  door  of  the  sitting-apartment. 
The  cushions  also  serve  as  beds,  and  little  change  of 
costume  is  made  for  sleeping,  except  laying  ofl'  the 
outer  street-garment.  No  knives  and  forks  are  used, 
nor  even  the  chopsticks  of  the  Chinese,  but  each  per- 
son dips  his  thumb  and  finger  into  the  dish ;  hence 
washing  the  hands  before  and  after  eating  is  neces- 
sary to  cleanliness,  and  is  enjoined  by  the  Koran.  A 
servant  passes  round  a  basin  and  ewer  before  bringing  in  the  tray 
containing  the  repast,  which  is  placed  on  the  floor  or  upon  a  low 
stool.  Sweetmeats,  perfumes,  and  lights  are  usually  provided  in 
profusion. 

Schools  are  numerous,  but  only  for  boys.  The  lessons  are  written 
upon  tablets,  and  rubbed  out  as  they  are  learned.  Girls  are  taught 
at  home  to  embroider,  sing,  and  play  on  musical  instruments,  and 
to  dance.  A  favorite  amusement  of  the  Mohammedans  is  story- 
telling. Crowds  gather  at  the  corners  of  the  streets  to  listen  to  men 
who  recite  in  prose  or  verse  the  adventures  of  imaginary  heroes. 

Both  men  and  women  wear  wide  trousers  gathered  in  at  the  ankle, 
and  loose  robes  and  vests,  varying  somewhat  in  form,  made  of  brocade, 
satin,  or  most  generally  of  the  striped  silk  and  woollen  fabric  manu- 
factured in  the  East.  An  important  part  of  the  costume  is  the  girdle, 
usually  a  rich  Cashmere  shawl  tied  round  the  waist.  The  men  shave 
their  heads,  and  wear  turbans  of  several  yards  of  linen  or  muslin 
wound  round  the  head.  The  women  never  go  out  without  a  large 
gown  which  envelops  them  from  head  to  foot,  and  a  long,  thick  veil 
fastened  just  beneath  the  eyes.     They  blacken  their  eyebrows  with 

Questions.  —  What  does  the  Ottoman  or  Turkish  Empire  now  include  ?  What  is 
the  capital  ?  What  government  officers  are  emplo}'»d  under  the  sultan  ?  AVhat  is  said 
of  the  people  ?  Of  their  condition  ?  Of  the  women  ?  What  are  some  of  the  cus- 
toms ?    What  kind  of  schools  have  they  ?    What  is  the  dress  f 


kohl,  a  black  powder  made  for  the  purpose,  and  stain  their  finger-nails 
with  the  reddish-yellow  juice  of  the  henna-plant.  Peasants  wear  only 
a  long  gown  of  blue  or  striped  cotton. 

Cities.  —  The  cities  usually  make  a  striking  appearance  from  a 
distance,  surrounded  by  groves  and  gardens,  kept  green  by  irrigation 
through  the  dryest  season,  —  often  a  mass  of  verdure  in  the  midst  of 
the  desert, — above  which  rise  the  tall,  white  minarets  of  numerous 
mosques.  But,  with  a  few  exceptions,  they  disappoint  one  on  a  near 
approach.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  often  dirty,  and  the  houses 
are  mostly  of  sun-dried  brick.  They  have  windows  high  above  the 
streets,  with  projecting  casements  of  lattice-work,  and  flat  roofs, 
surrounded  by  railings,  where  people  sit,  walk,  or  sleep  in  the  open 
air,  and  where  fruits  and  nuts  are  dried.  A  stranger  is  particularly 
struck  with  the  bazaars,  or  long  rows  of  shops  collected  under  one 
roof,  and  lighted  from  above,  where  goods  of  every  kind  are  dis- 
played, —  dress  goods  in  one  row,  leather  in  another,  dried  fruits 
in  a  third,  etc.  Public  baths  are  numerous  in  every  city,  varying 
from  spacious  apartments  provided  with  marble  basins,  perfumes, 
incense,  flowers,  and  well-trained  attendants,  to  the  wretched  tanks 
of  the  by-streets.  The  only  hotels  are  the  khans,  large,  unfurnished 
buildings,  whore  travellers,  chiefly  merchants  connected  with  cara- 
vans, find  shelter  merely,  providing  for  themselves. 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  cities  ?     Of  houses  ?     Bazaars  ?     Baths  ?     Khans  ? 


ASIA. 


149 


Like  all  Eastern  nations,  the  people  of  these  countries  have  retained 
the  rude  implements  and  simple  methods  of  agriculture  and  manufac- 
ture in  use  centuries  ago.  Nevertheless,  they  produce  some  goods 
of  the  finest  quality,  chiefly  woollens,  shawls,  carpets,  silks,  and 
leather. 

Turkey  consists  of  the  two  countries  of  European  Turkey,  be- 
tween Greece  and  Austria,  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  which  includes  Asia 
Minor,  or  the  mountainous  peninsula  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  Black  Seas,  Armenia,  Syria,  and  the  plain  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates. 

Asiatic  Turkey  is  crossed  by  the  Taurus  ranges,  and  toward  the 
northeast  rises  the  solitary  peak  of  Ararat.  Among  the  higher  moun- 
tains are  bleak,  cloud-capped  summits,  and  wild  ridges  topped  with 
dark  cedars.  But  between  them  are  valleys  of  great  beauty,  and 
along  the  lower  hills  and  plains  spread  mulberry-groves,  vineyards, 
unfenced  wheat-fields,  and  patches  of  rye  and  poppies. 

The  whole  country  is  infested  by  highway  robbers,  wandering 
tribes  from  the  deserts,  outlawed  Turks,  or  Greek  refugees.  Solitary 
farm-houses  are  not  safe,  and  the  farmers  live  together  in  villages, 
going  out  in  the  morning,  often  six  or  eight  miles,  with  their  animals 
and  wagons  to  the  fields  they  cultivate.  The  productions  are  wheat, 
rye,  excellent  tobacco,  fruits,  and  nuts,  and  there  are  also  numerous 
vineyards  and  mulberry-groves. 

The  plain  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  ancient  Mesopotamia, 
was  once  the  pathway  of  all  the  land-trade  between  India  and  the 
West.  There  stood  great  Babylon,  renowned  alike  for  its  wealth  and 
wickedness  ;  and  not  far  off  the  remains  of  Nineveh  have  been  found. 
Long  after  Babylon  had  fallen,  the  city  of  Bagdad  arose  and  flour- 
ished as  the  capital  of  the  first  caliphs.  But  its  splendor  faded  when 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Constantinople. 

Turkey  in  Europe,  the  large  country  between  the  Danube  and 
Greece,  is  not  unlike  Asiatic  Turkey.  It  is  equally  mountainous,  be- 
ing crossed  by  the  Balkan  chain  from  east  to  west,  and  is  broken  by 
steep  precipices,  rugged  ascents,  and  rocky  clifis.  Its  valleys,  how- 
ever, are  beautiful,  well  wooded,  and  better  watered  than  those  of 
the  Taurus. 

Grain  and  flax  are  chiefly  produced,  with  currants  and  other  fruits. 
The  flocks  yield  large  quantities  of  wool  for  exportation.  The  coun- 
try is  not  very  thickly  settled,  and  there  are  no  large  cities  except 
the  capital. 

Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  stands  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  though  its  domes,  minarets,  and 
turbaned  population  mark  it  as  an  Oriental  city,  it  is  not  so  wholly 
Mohammedan  as  the  Asiatic  cities.  Many  Germans,  Eussians,  French, 
and  English  mingle  in  the  streets  with  the  bearded  Turks,  and  the 
Frank  quarter  is  quite  European  in  style.  Few  cities  make  so  fine 
an  appearance  as  Constantinople,  with  its  showy  domes  rising  against 
a  background  of  hills,  and  more  than  half  surrounded  by  water.  Its 
bazaars  and  mosques  are  numerous  and  magnificent.  The  mosque  of 
St.  Sophia  has  a  fame  as  wide  as  that  of  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  at 
Rome.  It  is  built  chiefly  of  light  brick  with  colored  marble  ;  the 
ceilings  and  arches  are  covered  with  mosaics  and  gilt,  and  some  of 
the  variously  colored  columns  are  of  green  jasper. 

Nothing  can  be  finer  than  the  view  down  the  Bosphorus.  The  hilly 
shores  wind  in  and  out,  bold  crags  and  wooded  headlands  glitter  with 
batteries,  green  slopes  are  dotted  with  picturesque  villas,  all  with  a 


Questions.  ■ —  What  is  said  of  manufactures  ?  What  does  Turkey  include  ?  AVhat 
is  said  of  Asiatic  Turkey  ?  Of  Iiighvvay  robbers  ?  Of  farming  ?  AVIiat  are  the  pro- 
ductions ?  What  is  said  of  the  plain  of  the  Tigi-is  and  Euphrates  ?  Describe  Turkey 
in  Europe.     What  is  said  of  its  cities  ?    Of  Constantinople  ?    The  Bosphorus  ? 


background  of  steep  mountains  in  the  distance.  Vessels  are  at  anchor 
in  every  cove,  or  gliding  with  full  sails  over  the  water,  and  here  and 
there  are  the  Imperial  boats,  gay  with  their  gilt  prows  and  the  loose 
white  dresses  and  red  caps  of  the  boatmen. 

Scutari,  the  Asiatic  suburb,  is  quite  a  large  town,  and  the  rendez- 
vous of  caravans  from  the  East.  Here  are  palaces  and  gardens  belong- 
ing to  the  Sultan,  and  magnificent  barracks. 

Smyrna,  a  place  of  200,000  inhabitants,  is  the  great  seaport  of  the 
Levant,  or  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  exports  immense 
quantities  of  dried  fruits,  nuts,  and  drugs,  beside  the  carpets,  wool, 
and  silks  collected  from  all  parts  of  Turkey.  Trebizond,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  is  the  port  for  the  Russia-trade.  Angora,  an  ancient 
city,  is  now  famous  for  the  long-haired  goats  from  wHich  the  soft, 
fine  Angora-wool  is  obtained.  Brusa,  a  large,  wealthy  city,  is 
noted  for  the  manufacture  of  velvets.  Aleppo  is  another,  important 
city,  and  Bassora  is  the  port  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Syria  is  not  what  it  was  in  that  olden  time  when  the  hills  of  Judaea 
were  green  with  vineyards  and  pastures,  and  the  carefully  terraced 
mountain-sides  supported  the  population  of  numerous  villages  and 
towns.  Yet  it  still  produces,  with  only-  tolerable  cultivation,  the 
most  useful  fruits,  shrubs,  and  herbs  ;  and,  after  the  rainy  season, 
the  plains  are  covered  with  unfenced  fields  of  grain,  and  spotted  with 
scarlet  anemones,  while  fragrant  herbs  and  flowers  of  every  hue  are 
scattered  over  the  hills  in  wild  profusion. 

Olives  are  cultivated  throughout  the  country,  and  in  many  places 
form  the  common  food  of  the  people.  Nothing  is  more  characteristic 
of  the  hilly  region  than  the  groups  of  old,  gnarled  olive-trees  with 
their  dull,  grayish  foliage. 

Silk-making  is  a  common  employment,  and  mulberry-groves  are 
found  in  all  the  fertile  valleys,  or  sometimes  quite  far  up  among  the 
mountains,  and  the  country  around  is  covered  with  houses  of  thatch 
and  matting  to  protect  the  worms.  Tobacco  is  an  important  produc- 
tion in  these  countries,  where  smoking  is  universal.  The  plants  are 
cultivated  in  great  perfection.  Poppies  yield  a  valuable  supply  of 
opium,  and  the  great  patches  of  scarlet  flowers  on  the  hillsides  add 
a  peculiar  beauty  to  the  summer  in  Syria.  Great  fields  of  roses  are 
also  cultivated  for  making  ottar  of  roses. 

The  country  may  be  divided  into  the  coast-region,  or  Mediterranean 
slope  ;  the  valley  of  Judsea,  lying  between  the  parallel  ranges  of  the 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  ;  and  the  plain  of  Damascus,  stretching 
eastward  toward  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

Along  the  coast  are  the  ports  of  Tyre,  a  dull  town,  very  little  re- 
sembling ancient  Tyre,  the  great  commercial  city  of  the  Phcenicians  ; 
Jafia  and  Acre,  with  their  historical  associations  ;  and  the  modern 
port  of  Beyrout,  where  most  of  the  steamers  stop. 

Sponge-fishing  is  extensively  carried  on  along  the  Syrian  coast,  and 
in  the  summer,  which  is  the  most  favorable  time  for  gathering,  hun- 
dreds of  boats  are  employed.  Inferior  sponges  are  found  in  shallow 
water,  and  are  fished  up  with  three-pronged  harpoons,  which  tear 
them  from  the  rocks  at  the  bottom.  The  finer  sponges  are  collected 
by  divers,  who  cut  them  from  the  rocks  upon  which  they  grow 

A  little  inland  the  hills  are  covered  with  tobacco-plants  and  mul- 
berry-groves, and  beyond  rise  the  Lebanon  mountains,  —  their  naked 
cliffs  and  rugged  gorges  alternating  with  cultivated  terraces  and 
ledges  overgrown  with  lavender,  wild  thyme,  and  rue.  Near  their 
summit  stand  the  celebrated  "cedars  of  Lebanon,"  now  only  a  small 


Questions.  —  Where  and  what  is  Scutari  ?  What  is  said  of  Smyrna  ?  Trebizond  ? 
Augora  ?  AVhat  other  cities  ?  What  is  said  of  Syria  ?  Of  the  productions  ?  How 
is  the  countiy  divided  ?  What  is  said  of  the  seaports  ?  Which  is  the  modem 
port  ?  What  is  said  of  sponge-fishing  ?  Of  the  range  of  Lebanon  ?  Of  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon  ? 


152 


OUR  WORLD. 


leys,  or  oases,  between  the  mountains,  especially  in  the  southern 
province  of  Yemen,  which  was  called  by  the  Romans  Arabia  Felix, 
or  Happy  Arabia,  as  contrasted  with  the  stony  desolation  of  the 
north.  A  strip  of  low  land  borders  this  plateau,  with  a  sandy  shore 
on  the  Red  Sea,  and  an  abrupt  coral  wall  on  tiic  south. 

There  are  no  rivers,  for  the  torrents  of  the  rainy  season  soon  dry 
up,  leaving  the  country  seamed  with  tlicir  rocky  beds.  Except  in  the 
hopelessly  desert-regions,  the  appearance  of  the  country  changes 
greatly  with  the  seasons,  and  the  rains  of  a  few  weeks  often  suffice 
to  fill  the  beds  of  the  streams,  cool  the  air,  and  cover  the  earth  with 
grass. 

Periodical  winds  blow  with  great  force  along  the  coast  The 
dreaded  simoon,  which  blows  during  the  excessive  heat  of  summer 
from  Bassora  to  Mocha,  is  not  only  painful  to  eyes  and  skin,  but 
causes  terrible  diseases. 

Vegetation.  —  Much  of  the  rocky  country  in  the  north  is  absolutely 
barren.  The  sandy  plains  produce  gourds  and  other  succulent  plants, 
and  some  parts  of  the  mountains  are  wooded  with  juniper  and  cypress. 
Tlie  natural  growth  of  the  fertile  valleys  consists  chiefly  of  gum-trees 
and  aromatic  shrubs,  such  as  lavender,  jasmine,  wormwood,  seinia, 
etc.  The  coffee-shrub  is  native  to  Arabia,  and  indigo,  sugar-cane, 
almonds,  and  melons  grow  well.  The  Arabs  cultivate  millet  for 
grain.     Date-trees  form  the  chief  wealth  of  some  provinces. 

There  are  few  metals  in  Arabia,  but  the  bare,  rocky  regions  contain 
porphyry  and  marble,  saltpetre,  sulphur,  and  naphtha. 

AxiM.\i,s.  —  Arabia  is  the  native  country  of  a  breed  of  horses, 
slender  and  extremely  graceful  in  form.  The  horse  of  the  Arab  in- 
habits the  same  tent  with  his  master  ;  and,  being  treated  with  the 
greatest  cai'c  and  affection,  becomes  very  docile  and  intelligent. 
The  camel  is  also  native  here,  and  has  long  been  domesticated.  Great 
attention  is  given  to  its  breeding  and  training,  and  Arabia  supplies 
tlic  camels  used  in  the  caravan-trade  of  all  the  neighboring  countries. 
Tlie  wild  ass  is  valuable  for  speed  and  endurance,  and  bears  heavy 
burdens.  Goats  inhabit  the  rocky  heights,  together  with  a  variety 
of  apes,  which  often  make  destructive  forage  on  the  coffee-shrubs. 
Hyenas,  wolves,  and  jackals  haunt  the  deserts. 

Lnhabitants. — The  inhabitants  are  of  two  classes, —  civilized 
Mohammedans,  living  in  towns,  and  wandering  tribes,  who  move 
with  their  flocks  from  place  to  place.  Parties  of  fierce  Bedouins 
galloping  over  the  desert,  encampments  of  brown  tents  on  the 
plain,  and  gray-bearded  nheiks,  or  chiefs,  wrapped  in  their  woollen 
bernons,  are  frequently  seen.  These  Arabs  are  proud  of  their  wild, 
free  life,  despising  alike  the  ease  and  restraints  of  civilization.  They 
have  spread  into  adjoining  countries  of  Asia,  and  westward  over 
northern  Africa. 

The  cities  of  Arabia  are  few  and  small,  and  the  trading  population 
consists  of  Armenians  and  Jews.  Mecca,  the  holy  city,  the  birth- 
place of  Mohammed,  is  situated  in  a  barren  valley,  and  depends  for 
its  prosperity  on  the  annual  visits  of  large  caravans  of  pilgrims  and 
merchants  from  North  Africa  and  Turkey.  Medina  contains  the  tomb 
of  the  prophet,  and  pilgrims  often  visit  both  cities.  Mocha,  a  small 
town  on  the  flat  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  noted  for  the  exportation  of 
the  Mocha  coffee.  Muscat  is  another  small  port  on  the  coast  of 
Oman,  where  there  are  pearl-fisheries. 

The  trade  of  the  country  consists  of  the  caravan-trade  eastward 
with  Persia,  and  westward  with  Africa,  and  the  maritime-trade  with 
Europe.     The  exports  are  coffee,  gums,  spices,  horses,  and  pearls. 

Questions.  —  Descrihe  the  country.  Wiiuls.  Vegetation.  What  is  said  of  the 
animals  ?  Of  the  peoi)le  ?  Who  are  the  Beilouins  ?  What  is  said  of  Arabian  cities  ? 
Of  Mecca  ?    Medina  ?    Mocha  ?     Muscat  ?    Of  trade  ? 


SUMMARY. 

The  Ottoman  Empire  includes  Turkey  in  Europe,  Turkey  in  Asia, 
Syria,  a  part  of  Arabia,  and  most  of  North  Africa. 

It  is  governed  by  one  absolute  ruler,  the  suUan,  who  resides  at 
Constantinople,  and  appoints  a  pmha,  or  governor,  for  each  country 
or  province. 

The  inhabitants  are  Turks,  Arabs,  and  mixed  races,  —  all  Mo- 
hammedans, with  similar  dress,  manners,  and  customs.  The 
Koran,  or  Mohammedan  Bible,  teaches  belief  in  one  God,  and 
in  Mohammed  as  his  prophet  and  the  director  of  their  religion 
and  laws. 

Their  customs,  being  taught  as  religious  precepts,  scarcely  change 
from  age  to  age.  The  women  are  kept  secluded,  veil  their  faces  be- 
fore men,  and  occupy  an  inferior  position. 

The  cities  arc  surrounded  with  gardens,  contain  many  mosques, 
bazaars,  and  public  baths,  but  have  narrow,  crooked  streets,  and  are 
neither  clean  nor  well  built. 

There  are  few  rivers  ;  sandy  and  rocky  deserts  alternate  with  the 
fertile  valleys  ;  the  climate  is  warm  and  dry,  and  constant  irrigation 
is  necessary  for  cultivation. 

The  principal  productions  are  dates,  olives,  grain,  tobacco,  gums, 
and  spices,  and  the  mulberry-tree  is  largely  cultivated. 

The  exports  and  manufactures  are  wool,  silk,  carpets,  shawls, 
leather  or  morocco,  dried  fruits,  olives  and  oil,  nuts,  drugs,  and 
spices. 

The  principal  ports  are  Smyrna,  Alexandria,  and  Beyrout,  on  the 
Mediterranean  ;  Trcbizond  on  the  Black  Sea  ;  and  Bassora  and 
Muscat,  which  are  reached  by  vessels  from  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Recently  a  canal  has  been  cut  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  opening  a  direct  trade  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans. 

Port  Said  is  the  end  of  the  canal  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  Suez 
on  the  Red  Sea. 

Those  Eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  are  known  as  the 
Levant, 


GENERAL  REVIEW   OP  ASIA. 

Between  what  jiarallels  of  latitude  does  Asia  lie  ?  AVhat  countries  are  crossed  by  the 
tropic  of  Cancer  ?  What  indentations  are  formed  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  ?  By  the  In- 
dian Ocean  ?  What  seas  on  the  west  ?  Wliat  country  borders  on  the  Arctic  Ocean  ? 
What  ones  on  the  Pacific  ?  On  the  Indian  ?  On  the  Caspian  Sea  ?  On  Europe  ? 
Where  are  the  Gliauts  Mountains  ?  The  Altai  Mountains  ?  Lebanon  Mountains  ? 
Between  what  countries  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains  ?  Where  are  the  highest  moun- 
tain peaks  ?  Where  is  the  Indus  River  ?  The  Jordan  ?  The  Ainoor  ?  Where  do  most 
of  the  rivers  rise  ?  WHiat  rivers  in  the  west  ?  In  China  ?  Where  is  Turkestan  ? 
Kamtschatka  ?  Siam  ?  Birniah  ?  Syria  ?  Japan  ?  Malayan  peninsula  ?  Thibet  ? 
How  is  Calcutta  situated  ?  Benares  ?  Hong  Kong  ?  Bangkok  ?  Smyrna  ?  Damas- 
cus ?  Yedo  ?  Bombay  ?  Canton  ?  Tobolsk  ?  Constantinople  ?  Peking  ?  Irkut.sk  ? 
Bokhara  ?  Jerusalem  ?  Where  is  the  island  of  Ceylon  ?  Of  Singapore  ?  Bonieo  ? 
What  ai-e  the  drj',  desert  countries  of  Asia  ?  What  parts  are  remarkable  for  luxuriant 
vegetation  ?  What  are  the  rice  and  bamboo  countries  ?  Where  do  gums,  medicinal 
plants,  and  nuts  abound  ?  Where  is  the  spice  region  ?  Where  is  tea  cultivated  ? 
Coffee  ?  Indigo  ?  What  countries  produce  and  manufacture  silks  ?  What  countries 
are  noted  for  woollen  manufactures  ?  Where  is  the  Cashmere  wool  found  ?  The  Thi- 
bet wool  ?  Angora  wool  ?  What  kind  of  carpets  are  made  in  these  Eastern  countries  ? 
What  difference  between  their  methods  of  manufacture  and  oure  ?  How  are  the  houses 
of  Japan,  China,  and  India  usually  built  ?  Those  of  the  Mohammedan  countries  ?  In 
what  countries  does  Brahniinisni  prevail  ?  What  is  the  region  of  the  wandeiing  triU's  ? 
Where  are  furs  obtained  1  Sponges  ?  Pearls  ?  What  European  nations  have  large 
pos-sessions  in  Asia  ?  Where  are  tigers  found  ?  Elephants  ?  What  two  regions  arc 
noted  for  camels  ?  Of  what  is  the  lacquer-varnish  made  ?  The  common  shellac- 
varnish  ?    Wliere  are  the  mining-regions  of  Asia  ? 


AFRICA. 


153 


AFRICA. 

[Take  the  Study  of  tlie  Map  here.     (See  page  155.)] 


DESCRIPTION. 


Africa  being  one  solid  mass  of  land,  walled  in  by  mountains,  and 
unbroken  by  indentations,  the  moisture  from  the  seas  cannot  penetrate 
into  the  interior ;  therefore  largo  tracts  are  entirely  desert,  and  over 
the  whole  continent  there  is,  during  the  dry  season,  a  greater  or  less 
want  of  water.  As  Africa  lies  almost  wholly  within  the  torrid  zone, 
there  is  a  similarity  of  climate  and  vegetation  in  its  difl'erent  coun- 
tries, and  many  trees,  plants,  and  animals  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  continent. 

Vegetation.  —  Palms  are  the  characteristic  trees,  prevailing 
everywhere,  and  found  in  groves,  clusters,  or  singly  in  the  open  plain. 
Tiiere  are  many  species  of  palm  ;  but  most  of  them  are  similar  in  ap- 
pearance, with  tall,  scarred,  branchless  trunks,  and,  at  the  top,  a 
great  crown  of  feathery  leaves,  with  clusters  of  flowers  or  fruit  at 
their  base.  These  palms  are  invaluable  to  the  natives,  serving  as 
many  purposes  as  the  bamboo  does  in  Asia.  The  wood  of  some 
species  is  used  for  building-material.  The  leaves  are  used  not  only 
to  thatch  their  houses,  but  are  woven  into  many  varieties  of  mats 
and'^ljaskcts.  The  tough  fibres  at  the  foot  of  the  leaf-stalk  make 
strong  ropes,  nets,  and  sometimes  a  kind  of  coarse  cloth.  The  fruit 
of  the  date-palm  furnishes  food  to  great  numbeis  of  people,  and  large 
quantities  of  dates  are  packed  in  matting  made  of  their  own  leaves 
for  exportation.  The  nut  of  the  cocoa-palm  serves  for  both  food  and 
drink.  The  oil-palm  bears  a  small  nut  from  which  oil  is  expressed. 
A  refreshing  drink  is  made  from  the  wine-palm  by  cutting  a  youuLf 
shoot,  collecting  the  liquid  which  gradually  flows  out,  and  allowinu; 
it  to  ferment  into  a  sort  of  wine,  much  used  in  tropical  countries 
The  nut  of  the  ivory-palm  is  about  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  so  hard 
and  white  that  it  is  used  instead  of  ivory  for  making  small  articles. 
The  pith  of  the  sago-palm  supplies  the  sago  so  extensively  exported 
from  the  torrid  zone. 

Acacias  are  very  common  in  Africa,  and  the  small,  pinnate  leaves 
of  these  trees  form  almost  the  only  foliage  of  large  tracts  in  the 
south  and  east.  Gum  exudes  freely  from  the  branches  of  many 
species,  and  hardens  into  lumps.  The  clear  white  or  straw-colored 
gum  of  one  species  is  the  gum-arabic  of  commerce.  This  gum  is 
beaten  off  gently  with  sticks  by  women  and  children,  and  packed  in 
baskets  for  exportation.  The  Baobab  is  the  chief  shade-tree  of  Af- 
rica ;  its  height  is  not  very  great,  but  its  circumference  is  enormous, 
often  measuring  from  thirty  to  forty  feet.  The  low  trunk  separates 
into  branches,  which  curve  toward  the  ground,  forming  a  great  dome 
of  green,  delightful  to  the  eye  in  that  sunny  land.  Tamarind-frees 
grow  chiefly  along  the  watercourses,  and  bear  a  fruit  resembling 
the  flat,  brown  pod  of  the  honey-locust.  The  flour  made  from  the 
fleshy  root  of  the  manioc-plant  is  largely  consumed  by  the  natives, 
and  exported  in  the  form  of  tapioca. 

Cotton,  indigo,  small  grains,  and  cacti  grow  very  generally. 

Animals.  —  Much  of  Africa  is  still  left  to  the  wild  animals,  and  in 
no  continent  are  they  so  numerous,  large,  and  fierce.  Lions,  panthers, 
elephants,  giraffes,  etc.,  inhabit  the  forests;  buffaloes,  antelopes, 
zebras,  and  gazelles  herd  on  the  plains  ;  crocodiles  and  hippopotami 
abound  in  the  streams ;  hyenas  and  jackals  haunt  the  desert ;  and 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  surface  and  climate  of  Africa  ?  Of  its  vegetation 
and  animals  ?  What  of  palms  and  their  uses  ?  What  other  characteristic  trep.s  ? 
What  is  tapioca  ?    What  animals  abound  in  Africa  1 


all  the  tribes  of  gorillas,  apes,  etc.,  infest  the  hill-country  of  the  west 
and  east. 

Immense  numbers  of  elephants  are  killed  yearly,  that  their  tusks 
may  supply  the  civilized  world  with  ivory,  — thousands  of  tusks  being 
used  for  knife-handles  alone.  The  ivory  from  the  African  elephant  is 
said  to  be  whiter  and  less  liable  to  crack  than  tliiit  of  the  Asiatic  ele- 
phant. Many  ain'mals  are  hunted  for  their  skins  by  the  natives,  who 
are  often  very  skilful  in  tanning  or  otherwise  prepaiing  them  for  use. 
The  skin  of  the  hippopotamus  is  extremely  thick,  and  can  be  made  so 
hard  as  to  serve  for  shields,  which  are  very  generally  used  among  the 
native  tribes. 

The  ostrich,  the  tallest  of  all  birds,  is  found  in  flocks  on  the  plains 
of  South  and  East  Africa.     This  groat  bird  is  six  or  seven  feet  high, 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  elephants  ?     Of  the  liipiiopotanuis  ?    The  ostiich  ? 


^J^je^_^^  .i*'**  LOWER  EGYPT. 


AFRICA. 


llit 


STUDY   OF  THE  MAP. 

Area  about  11,500,000  square  miles. 

Africa  extends  from  the  35th  degree  south  latitude  to  the  37th  degree  north 

■  latitude,  the  equator  passing  through  nearly  the  centre  of  the  continent.     It  is 

surrounded  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west,  the  Antarctic  on  the  south,  the 

Indian  Ocean  and  Red  Sea  on  the  east,  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  north, 

which  separates  it  from  Europe.     The  only  large  indentations  are  the  Gulf  of 

G a  and  the  R d  Sea.     The  prominent  capes  are,  on  the  north,  Cape 

B n ;  on  the  east.  Cape  G i ;  on  the  south,  Cape  A s ;  and  on  the 

west.  Cape  V d. 

Mountains.  —  Africa  is  mainly  a  vast  plateau,  bordered  on  all  sides  by  moun- 
tains, and  portions  of  the  interior  are  yet  unexplored.  The  Atlas  Mountains,  on 
the  north,  are  highest  and  broadest  in  Morocco,  where  they  separate  into  several 
ridges.  Snow  falls  on  some  of  the  highest  summits ;  but,  though  the  Mediterra- 
nean shore  is  within  the  temperate  zone,  the  vegetation  and  character  of  the 
country  are  still  tropical. 

The  Kong  Mountains,  along  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  run  almost  parallel  with  the 
Atlas  Mountains  ;  and  a  low  range  follows  the  west  coast  southward. 

The  Snow  Mountains  cross  the  Cape  country  from  west  to  east. 

The  mountains  of  the  east  coast  rise  to  a  considerable  height,  and  contain  Mt. 
Kilimanjaro  and  Mt.  Kenia,  the  highest  peaks  in  Africa.  Tlie  Quathlamba  range 
is  the  southern  part  of  the  chain.  This  is  followed  by  the  Lupata  Mountains; 
and  farther  north  several  ridges  separate  and  enclose  the  plateau  of  Abyssinia. 

Rivers.  —  The  Nile,  one  of 
the  largest  rivers  in  the  world, 
has  only  lately  been  explored 
in  the  upper  part  of  its  course. 
It  is  thought  to  rise  far  south 
among  the  east  coast  moun- 
tains, and  to  receive  the  waters 
of  Lakes  Victoria  and  Albert 
Nyanza ;  but  the  great  ex- 
plorer, Livingstone,  is  now 
making  still  further  discoveries 
in  this  region. 

Tlie  Niger  is  the  great  river 
of  the  west.  It  drains  a  large 
region  north  of  the  Kong  Moun- 
tains, and  flows  into  the  Bight 
of  Biafra. 

Tlie  Zambesi  has  a  long 
course  through  the  interior, 
/  receiving  many  tributaries,  and 
makes  its  way  through  the 
mountains  into  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

These  three  great  rivers  form 
large  deltas  in  the  flat  coast- 
country. 

The  Orange,  the  only  river 
of  much  size  in  South  Africa, 
flows  into  the  Atlantic,  form- 
ing the  northern  boundary  of 
the  Ca])e-lands. 

Rivers  of  considerable  size  flow  from  the  coast  mountains  into  the  Atlantic,  but 
are  all  obstructed  by  sand-bars  at  their  mouth,  and  are  seldom  navigable. 

Most  of  the  lesser  streams  are  dry  during  a  part  of  the  year. 

Lakes.  —  There  are  several  large  lakes  in  Africa,  only  second  in  size  to 
those  of  North  America.  Of  these  the  chief  are  Like  Tchad,  Lakes  Victoria 
and  Albert  Nyanza,  which  supply  the  Nile,  and  Lakes  Tanganyika  and  Nyassa. 
Lake  Tchad  is  in  the  midst  of  the  central  depression,  and  is  surrounded  by  lagoons 
and  marshes. 

The  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  are  Egypt,  connecting  with 
Asia,  and  the  Barbary  States,  namely  ?  The  countries  bordering  on  the  Red 
Sea  are  ?     South  of  Barbary  extends  ?     The  central  part  of  the  continent  is 


occupied  by  Soudan,  and  the  remainder  by  the  countries  of  savage  Negro  tribes, 
except  a  few  foreign  colonies  along  the  coasts.  South  of  Orange  River  is  Cape 
Colony,  belonging  to  the  English. 

What  is  the  direction  of  the  Coast  from  Cape  Bon  to  Cape  Verd  ?  From 
Cape  Verd  to  the  mouth  of  the  Niger  ?  From  the  Niger  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ?  From  the  latter  to  Cape  Guardafui  ?  From  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  to 
the  isthmus  of  Suez. 


[Continued  from  page  153.] 

and  strong  enough  to  carry  a  man  on  its  back.  It  docs  not  fly,  but 
runs  with  incredible  swiftness.  Only  the  short,  curled  wing  and  tail 
feathers  arc  valuable  ;  but  the  Arab  or  Negro  usually  skins  the  bird, 
packs  the  curled  feathers  in  the  skin,  and  sells  the  whole  together. 
The  feathers  are  black  or  white  ;  the  white  being  the  least  numerous 
and  most  costly. 

Gazelles  are  pretty,  fleet-footed  creatures,  resembling  small  deer, 
easily  tamed,  and  sometimes  kept  for  pots.  They  usually  herd  in 
troops  on  the  borders  of  the  desert. 

Termiles,  or  "white  ants,"  as  they  are  wrongly  called,  are  found 
in  most  parts  of  Africa.  These  remarkable  insects,  loss  than  half 
an  inch  long,  raise  immense  conical  mounds  of  earth,  many  times 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  builders  than  the  dwell- 
ings  of  men.      These    "  ant-hills  "   are  often  between  twenty  and 


Aut-hills. 

thirty  feet  high,  traversed  by  numerous  galleries  connecting  with 
an  underground  apartment.  The  sides  are  fifteen  or  twenty  inches 
thick,  and  so  hard  that  men,  and  even  buffaloes,  mount  them  with- 
out breaking  through.  The  termites  live  in  communities  consisting 
of  a  queen,  soldiers,  and  workers,  and  their  habits  are  singularly 
interesting. 

Locusls  have  always  been  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Eastern  na- 
tions, and  are  still  common  throughout^Africa.     They  resemble  grass- 
Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  gazelles  ?    Termites  ?    Ix>custs  ? 


156 


OUR  WORLD. 


Locust. 


hoppers,  and,  after  the  wings  are  taken  off,  the  bodies  are  roasted  and 
eaten,  often  with  wild  honey,  by  the  natives.  During  some  seasons 
tliey  are  so  numerous  as  to  become  a  terrible  scourge  to  the  country. 
Tliey  come  in  vast  swarms,  like  a  thick  cloud,  hiding  the  sun  ;  and 
the  noise  of  their  millions  of  wings  is  like  the  distant  roar  of  water. 


When  this  army  alights,  the  brandies  of  trees  break  with  the  weight, 
and  in  a  few  hours  all  vegetation  disappears  from  a  large  area.  Grain 
is  gnawed  to  the  roots,  and  trees  are  stripped  of  their  leaves. 

Some  poisonous  reptiles  belong  to  Africa,  and  here,  as  in  India,  men 
spend  their  lives  in  taming  venomous  serpents,  generally  so  fatal 
to  mankind.  It  is  a  question  how  much  trickery  these  "  charmers" 
use,  yet  it  is  certain  that  some  persons  can  handle  such  creatures 
without  being  hurt.  Tlie  exhibitions  of  serpent-charmers  are  very 
common  in  the  streets  of  Cairo  and  the  cities  of  Barbary. 

There  is  no  animal  more  repulsive  than  the  hyena,  with  its  cruel, 
hungry  face  and  disgusting  habits.  It  is  the  ghoul  among  animals  ; 
it  haunts  the  desert,  follows  caravans,  and  prowls  around  tents 
with  ravenous  expectation.  Not  unfrequently  it  makes  its  way  into 
the  villages  to  rob  new-made  graves.  Yet,  if  the  hyena  is  repulsive, 
it  is  also  useful  as  a  scavenger  in  waste  plains,  disposing  of  dead 
bodies  of  men  and  beasts  which  otherwise  would  cause  disease  and 
death  to  the  living. 


POLITICAL    DIVISIONS 


Africa  maybe  divided  into:  1.  North  Africa,  including  the  Mo- 
hammedan countries  of  Egypt  and  the  Barbary  States,  and  extending 
into  the  Desert  of  Sahara  ;  2.  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  bordering  on  the 
Red  Sea;  3.  Soudan,  south  of  the  Great  Desert ;  4.  The  Negro  Coun- 
tries, which  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  the  southern  half  of  the 
continent;  5.  Foreign  colonies  and  trading-towns  along  the  coasts. 

NORTH  AFRICA. 

Barbary  States.  —  This  region  is  one  of  the  finest  pai'ts  of  Af- 
rica, with  a  mild  climate,  and  all  the  characteristics  of  the  beautiful 
Mediterranean  shores.  Around  the  Gulf  of  Sidra  there  are  barren, 
sandy  tracts  near  the  coast,  but  westward  the  hills  soon  begin  to 
rise,  alternating  with  fertile  valleys  and  cultivated  fields.     Still  far- 


Cypress- trees 


^»*it''--' 


Questions  —  AVli.it  is  said  of  Reptiles  ?    Hyenas  ?    How  is  Africa  divided  politi- 


ther  west  the  Atlas  range  descends  in  terraces  to  the  sea,  covered 
with  cedars,  laurels,  and  myrtles ;  the  hills  and  glens  are  overgrown 
with  a  profusion  of  aromatic  shrubs  and  wild-flowers,  the  streams 
are  fringed  with  oleanders,  and  towns  and  villages  along  the  slopes 
are  surrounded  with  orchards  of  peaches,  apricots,  and  almonds,  and 
groups  of  tall,  dark  cypress-trees.  Date-palms  are  to  be  seen  almost 
everywhere,  and  are  especially  numerous  over  a  large  district  south 
of  the  Atlas,  known  as  the  Land  of  Dales. 

The  southern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  is  not  leas  associated 
with  stories  of  ancient  times  than  is  the  European  shore.  Ruins  of 
old  cities  have  fallen  into  heaps  of  rubbish  ;  mutilated  statues  and 
carved  pedestals  lie  half-buried  in  the  earth  ;  and  tombs,  excavated 
in  the  mountain-side  hundreds  of 
years  ago,  are  overgrown  with 
creeping  vines,  or  serve  as  dwell- 
ings for  the  half-wild  Arabs. 

The  Inhabitants  of  all  this 
northern  region  comprise  Turks, 
Arabs,  Moors,  Jews,  and  other 
races,  but  the  prevailing  religion, 
customs,  dress,  and  architecture 
are  essentially  Mohammedan. 
The  population  consists  of  two 
classes,  —  inhabitants  of  towns, 
and  wandering  tribes  of  Arabs  or 
Bedouins.  The  towns'  people, 
merchants,  traders,  manufactur- 
ers, and  government  officers  - 
wear  the  turbans,  loose  garments 
of  silk  or  woollen,  and  rich  gir- 
dles which  form  the  usual  Mo- 
hammedan costume.  The  Be- 
douins inhabit  the  pasture-lands 
bordering  on  the  desert,  and 
other  tracts  of  uncultivated  country.     They  dwell  in  tents,  live  upon 


MobaumieUau  woman. 


cally  ?    What  is  said  of  the  Barbary  States  ?    Of  their  vegetation  ?    Of  dates  ?    Who 
are  tlie  inhabitants  ?    How  is  the  population  divided  ?    Describe  the  Bedouins. 


AFRICA. 


157 


milk  and  dates,  and  wear  a  thick, 
brown  woollen  cloth,  several 
yards  long,  wrapped  about  them  , 
red  caps  ;  and  sandals  of  camel's 
hide.  The  Bedouins  have  but 
little  intercourse  with  the  cities, 
each  family  supplying  its  own 
wants ;  every  woman  spins,  and 
every  man  can  weave  the  coarse 
cloth  for  his  mantle.  When  spin- 
ning they  sit  on  the  ground  and 
put  a  heap  of  wool  under  then 
feet,  passing  tufts  between  then 
toes  upward  to  a  kind  of  spindle 

Morocco,  much  the  largest  and 
richest  of  the  Barbary  States,  is 
independent,  and  ruled  by  an 
emperor.  Cape  Spartel,  the 
northern  extremity,  is  opposite 
the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  Morocco, 
the  capital,  stands  on  a  large 
plain  enclosed  by  mountains,  and 
contains  magnificent  mosques, 
but  the  houses  are  mean,  and 
the  streets  narrow  and  crooked 
like  those  of  Turkey.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  beautiful  and 

picturesque,  and  lilies  of  the  valley,  mignonette,  and  jasmine  grow 
wild  in  profusion.  Fez  is  an  important  city,  noted  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  red  caps  so  much  worn  along  the  Mediterranean  shores. 

The  people  of  Barbary  excel  in  tanning,  and  Morocco  is  famous 
for  the  soft  leather  or  goat-skin  of  that  name.  The  tanners  of  Mequi- 
nez,  by  a  process  of  tanning  with  pomegranate  and  other  plants  na- 
tive in  the  Atlas  provinces,  but  unknown  to  Europeans,  make  the 
skins  of  lions  and  panthers  as  soft  as  silk,  and  extremely  white. 
Various  dyes  are  employed,  and  several  cities  are  celebrated  for  mo- 
rocco of  some  particular  color.  The  best  red  is  made  in  P^ez,  the  best 
yellow  in  Morocco,  etc.,  etc.  Much  of  this  colored  morocco  is  used 
by  the  Mohammedans  for  slippers,  and  large  quantities  are  exported. 

Various  woollen  goods  are  manufactured  here  aiid  in  the  other 
States,  chiefly  carpets  or  rugs,  and  the  white  or  striped  "  bernouses  " 
worn  by  the  Arabs. 

Algeria.  —  Formerly  the  natives  of  the  Barbary  coast  were  pirates, 
and  so  infested  the  sea  that  tlie  commerce  of  European  nations  suf- 
fered greatly,  and  the  merchant  or  sailor  had  always  before  him  the 
possibility  of  a  cruel  death  or  a  life-long  slavery.  Christian  nations 
united  against  these  pirates,  fleets  were  sent  out  year  after  year,  and 
the  French  have  since  1830  been  in  possession  of  Algeria.  Strong 
fortifications  protect  the  coast,  though  the  province  still  retains  its 
native  population  and  character.  The  city  of  Algiers  rises  on  the 
mountain-side  in  a  succession  of  terraces,  and  presents  an  imposing 
appearance  from  the  sea,  surrounded  by  strongly  fortified  walls,  with 
four  castles  and  gates  ;  but  on  a  near  approach  there  is  nothing  at- 
tractive about  the  place.  The  French  population  consists  of  mer- 
chants, ship-brokers,  and  bankers  ;  and  steamers  sail  regularly  to  and 
from  Marseilles. 

Tunis  is  governed  by  an  absolute  monarch  with  the  title  of  Bey. 

Questions.  —  Wliat  is  saiil  of  Morocco  ?  Of  the  city  of  Morocco  ?  Of  the  capital  ? 
Of  Ki!Z  ?  Of  manufactures  ?  How  did  Algeria  come  into  the  iX)Sse.ssion  of  the  French  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  city  of  Algiera  ?    What  of  the  other  Barbary  States  ? 


The  forming  of  a  Caravan. 

Tripoli  is  nominally  subject  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Barca  and  the 
large  oasis  of  Fezzan  belong  to  Tripoli.  The  country  for  the  most 
part  is  lower  and  less  interesting  than  the  mountain-region  farther 
west,  and  Barca  extends  over  the  desert  tracts  near  Egypt.  The  cap- 
itals, of  the  same  names  as  the  provinces,  are  meanly  built  Moham- 
medan towns,  though  Tripoli  makes  a  striking  appearance  with  its 
glittering  white  houses  and  long  avenues  of  palms  rising  from  a 
broad,  sandy  plain. 

The  extensive  inland  trade  of  Barbary,  Egypt,  and  the  desert  south- 
ward is  carried  on  entirely  by  means  of  caravans  ;  all  kinds  of  mer- 
chandise being  transported  by  camels,  which  are  admirably  adapted 
by  nature  for  desert-travel,  and  have  become  wholly  domesticated  in 
these  countries.  They  are  very  patient,  and  carry  heavy  loads,  — 
usually  of  about  five  huudred  pounds.  One  of  their  stomachs  is  pro- 
vided with  little  cells  in  which  they  can  retain  a  quantity  of  water 
sufficient  for  several  days,  drawing  it  into  their  throats  again  gradu- 
ally, as  needed.  The  bottoms  of  their  feet  are  covered  with  tough 
cushions,  wliich  give  them  a  firm  footing  on  the  sand  ;  their  mouths 
are  lined  with  hard  cartilage,  enabling  them  to  eat  the  dry,  thorny 
plants  of  the  desert  ;  and  there  are  callous  surfaces  on  the  chest  and 
knees,  upon  which  they  rest  without  injury  when  kneeling  to  receive 
their  loads.  The  milk  of  the  camel  is  necessary  to  the  wandering 
tribes,  and  the  flesh  is  also  eaten,  though  rarely,  as  camels  are  too 
valuable  to  be  killed,  except  in  case  of  necessity.  The  hair  is  woven 
into  diflerent  fabrics,  fine  and  coarse,  and  is  also  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  small  brushes.  Tliis  species  of  camel  is  distinguished  by 
a  single  hump,  and  cannot  endure  cold  like  the  two-humped  or  Bac- 
trian  camel  of  Middle  Asia. 

A  caravan  often  consists  of  four  or  five  hundred  loaded  camels, 
and  a  crowd  of  merchants,  servants,  guides,  and  horses.  The  mer- 
chants come  together  just  outside  the  city  from  which  the  caravan  is 

Questions.  —  How  is  the  trade  of  this  region  carried  ou  ?  What  is  .said  of  the 
camel  ?    What  is  a  caravan  ? 


158 


OUR  WORLD. 


to  depart.  There  camels  are  hired,  contracts  made,  leaders  ap- 
pointed, armed  men  provided  for  protection  against  robbers,  and 
finally  supplies  of  water  and  food  laid  in  ;  the  water  being  carried  in 
the  leather  bottles  peculiar  to  the  East.  Chance  travellers  and  ex- 
plorers join  the  caravan  ;  and  it  is  common  for  Mohammedan  young 
men  to  make  one  or  more  jouruej's  with  caravans,  in  order  to  see  the 
world,  and  grow  in  knowledge  and  wisdom,  just  as  our  young  men 
make  a  European  tour,  or  study  a  year  or  more  in  Germany  or  France. 

The  annual  caravans  to  the  East  stop  at  Mecca,  where  are  gathered 
over  200,000  men  and  100,000  camels  from  all  parts  of  the  Moham- 
medan world,  and  where  a  fair  is  held  which  lasts  two  or  three  months. 
There  Persian  silks,  perfumes,  spices,  and  India  goods  are  taken  in 
exchange  for  leather,  cochineal,  ostrich  feathers,  woollen  cloth,  etc. 

The  caravan  from  Barbary  to  Soudan  carries  salt,  woollen  man- 
tles, sashes,  Turkey-daggers,  mirrors,  etc.  ;  and  brings  back  ivory, 
gums,  gold-dust,  feathers,  indigo,  natron,  and  slaves. 

The  trade  of  North  Africa  includes  three  great  branches:  1. 
The  caravan-trade  with  the  East ;  2.  The  caravan-trade  with  Sou- 
dan ;  3   The  maritime-trade  with  Europe. 

Egypt.  —  The  name  of  Egypt  calls  up  two  quite  different  pictures 
to  the  mind,  —  ancient  Egypt,  one  of  the  oldest  and  wisest  of  nations, 
great  in  power,  learning,  and  civilization,  with  its  long  line  of  kings, 
its  mighty  cities,  its  temples,  and  pyramids  ;  and  modern  Egypt,  a 
dependency  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  which  has  been  ill-governed  and 
backward  in  civilization.  The  present  rulers,  however,  are  active  in 
introducing  modern  improvements. 

Surface.  —  In  the  lower  part  of  its  course  the  Nile  receives  no 
tributaries,  but  flows  on  in  one  great  volume  through  a  narrow  plain, 
shut  in  on  each  side  by  a  ridge  of  barren  hills,  one  bordering  upon 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  other  upon  the  desert.  In  this  valley  of  Egypt 
no  rain  falls,  except  periodical  showers  at  the  delta  ;  but  the  want  of 
water  is  supplied  by  the  yearly  overflow  of  the  Nile,  and  the  river  is 
regarded  as  a  beneficent  power  by  the  inhabitants.  The  banks  of  the 
river  are  the  highest  portions  of  the  plain,  which  slopes  slightly 
toward  the  hills  ;  and  thus  the  rich  loam,  washed  into  the  main  stream 
by  the  torrents  of  Abyssinia,  is  spread,  by  the  inundation,  over  the 
whole  valley,  making  it  unusually  fertile  and  suitable  for  grain. 

That  ever}'  part  of  the  land  may  have  a  full  and  lasting  benefit 
from  the  water,  numerous  canals  cross  the  country  in  all  directions, 
and,  by  means  of  dams,  gates,  and  sluices,  the  inundation  is  regulated 
according  to  the  wants  of  the  people,  and  a  supplj'  of  water  held  in 
reserve  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  year.  The  canals  are  bordered 
by  narrow  embankments,  which  serve  as  pathway's  over  the  country, 
and  during  the  time  of  the  overflow  communication  from  place  to 
place  is  often  very  indirect. 

The  appearance  of  the  country  varies  with  the  season.  During  the 
drought  the  earth  is  parched,  and  cracked  with  wide,  deep  fissures. 
In  the  time  of  inundation,  which  begins  in  June,  the  whole  valley  is 
like  a  lake,  sprinkled  with  groups  of  trees  and  villages  built  on 
mounds.  By  January  the  water  has  subsided,  leaving  a  black,  slimy 
soil,  into  which  the  grain  is  dropped.  T';e  period  of  vegetation  fol- 
lows almost  immediate]}',  and  the  whole  country  is  covered  with  ver- 
dure. But  under  any  condition  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  is 
monotonous.  The  delta  is  either  a  dry  plain,  or  a  lake,  or  a  carpet 
of  verdure.  Farther  south  the  view  is  bounded  by  bare  hills,  on 
the  east  high  and  abrupt,  on  the  west  lower  and  covered  with  sand. 
Along  the  river  palm  succeeds  palm,  one  village  is  like  another,  white 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  caiuvan-trade  1  What  are  the  tliree  great 
branches  of  trade  ?  What  i.s  said  of  Egj'pt  ?  Describe  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  Irriga- 
tion and  canals.     The  appearance  of  the  country.     The  delta. 


tombs  gleam  from  the  copses,  and  rows  of  white  birds  stand  on 
the  sand-banks. 

There  are  few  wild  animals  ;  hyenas  and  jackals  prowl  on  the 
desert,  the  little  jerboa  burrows  among  the  ruins,  and  storks  feast  on 
the  frogs  and  worms  after  the  overflow  ;  the  crocodile,  once  so  com- 
mon in  the  Nile,  is  seldom  seen  north  of  Nubia,  but  the  river 
abounds  with  fish.  Insects  are  now,  as  of  old,  the  scourge  of  the 
country  ;  and  flies,  fleas,  and  lice  swarm  in  vast  numbers. 

Productions. — There  are  no  forests  in  Egypt.  The  sycamores, 
with  their  low,  spreading  branches,  are  the  principal  shade-trees ; 
and  tliese,  with  a  few  date-palms,  and  acacias  and  fruit-trees,  stand 
in  little  clusters  about  the  villages. 

There  are  no  weeds,  and  but  few  flowers,  for  the  inundation  washes 
oflf  all  seeds,  so  that  nothing  grows  but  what  is  again  planted. 
Some  aromatic  shrubs  grow  near  the  hills  ;  but  the  native  plants  are 
mostly  aquatic,  like  the  lotus  and  papyrus,  and  are  found  in  the 
canals  or  on  the  edges  of  lakes  and  marshes.  Grain,  flax,  hemp, 
and  beans  are  cultivated,  and  also  the  henna-plant,  used  by  the 
women  for  coloring  their  nails. 

The  manufactures  are  chiefly  of  linen,  cotton,  and  silk,  and  earthen- 
ware water-jars,  with  which  every  house  is  supplied. 

The  villages  are  small  collections  of  mud  hovels  thatched  with 
palm  leaves,  and  built  on  mounds  or  heaps  of  rubbish  which  barely 
raise  them  above  the  waters  of  the  inundation. 

Cairo,  a  place  of  over  200,000  inhabitants,  is  one  of  the  finest  Mo- 
hammedan cities,  and  the  mosques  are  numerous  and  often  beautiful. 
Along  the  narrow  streets  are  rows  of  shops,  —  mere  recesses,  several 
feet  above  the  street,  separated  by  railings,  and  open  in  front, 
where  the  merchants  sit  on  cushions  with  their  wares  arranged  on 
shelves  behind  them.  Water  from  the  Nile  is  carried  about  in  the 
leather  bottles  peculiar  to  the  East,  and  sold  from  door  to  door. 
Asses  are  used  for  riding  througli  the  narrow,  crooked  streets, 
instead  of  carriages.  Opthalmia,  a  disease  of  the  eyes  caused  by 
the  hot  winds  and  sand,  prevails  ;  and  many  of  the  people  are  blind 
or  affected  with  sore  eyes,  especially  among  the  laboring  classes. 

Some  distance  up  the  river  from  Cairo  stand  the  wonderful  pyra- 
mids of  ancient  Egypt,  containing  the  tombs  of  kings  who  rei^jned 
thousands  of  years  ago.  The  ruins  of  the  old  city  of  Thebes  are 
still  visited. 

The  busy  port  of  Alexandria  is  continually  thronged  with  foreign- 
ers, and  contains  a  number  of  European  buildings.  The  only  other 
cities  are  the  smaller  ports  of  Damietta  and  Rosetta. 

A  canal  has  been  opened  across  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  which  short- 
ens the  distance  to  India,  and  will  have  a  great  effect  upon  the  trade 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Suez,  on  the  Red  Sea,  is  at  one  end  of  the 
canal,  and  Port  Said,  the  other  terminus,  is  a  small  town  built  on  the 
low,  flat  sands,  scarcely  above  the  water. 

Nubia  and  Abyssinia.  —  In  ancient  times  the  people  of  Nubia 
and  Abyssinia  were  respected  as  nations  of  standing  and  civilization, 
though  they  were  but  little  known.  There  is  no  trace  now  left  of 
such  civilization  ;  but  the  natives  differ  from  the  Negroes  in  appear- 
ance, and,  though  quite  dark,  resemble  the  old  Egyptians.  They  are 
preferred  to  the  Negroes  as  slaves  by  the  Mohammedans,  and  great 
numbers  of  young  boys  and  girls  are  constantly  taken  to  Cairo  and 
other  places. 

Abyssinia  is  mostly  a  high  table-land,  crossed  by  mountain-ridges, 
and,  after  the  tropical  rains,  torrents  of  water  pour  down  the  deep 

Questions.  —  What  animals  are  common  ?  What  are  the  productions  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  manufactures  ?  Villages  ?  Of  Cairo  ?  Of  ruins  ?  Of  other  cities  ?  Of 
the  Suez  canal  ?     Of  Nubia  and  Abyssinia  ?    Describe  Abyssinia. 


AFRICA. 


159 


ravines,  overflowing  and  fertilizing  the  plains  below.  The  scenery  is 
wild  and  grand,  —  high,  rugged  mountains  with  deep  gorges  and 
waterfalls,  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys  covered  with  luxuriant 
vegetation.     Gum-trees  abound,  and  fine  wheat  is  raised. 

People.  —  The  present  population  is  a  mixture  of  Turks,  Arabs, 
Jews,  and  natives,  all  in  a  rather  degraded  condition.  The  usual 
dress  is  a  loose  cotton  garment,  generally  dark  blue,  but  sometimes 
white  bordered  with  red.  That  of  the  woman  is  wrapped  about  her 
body  and  fastened  on  one  shoulder,  as  in  Upper  Egypt. 

Nubia  is  a  level  plain,  broken  hero  and  there  by  bare,  rocky  tracts 
of  some  height.  The  country  is  partly  wooded,  partly  pasture-land, 
with  some  marshes  along  the  Nile,  but  upon  the  whole  rather  bare 
and  unpromising.     Khartoom  is  the  only  large  town. 

Baboons  inhabit  the  bare  rocks,  and  parrots  and  guinea-fowl  the 
woods  below.  Hyenas  prowl  in  the  desert,  and  hippopotami,  croco 
diles,  and  herons  are  found  in  the  swamps. 

Gum-arabic  and  ostrich  feathers  are  exported. 

The  Desert  of  Sahara.  —  South  of  the  Barbary  States  extends 
the  vast  Desert  of  Saliara,  from  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is 
a  region  of  drought  and  desolation,  consisting  of  tracts  of  gravel 
and  rock,  and  great  wastes  of  fine,  loose  sand,  marked  with  ripples 
by  the  wind,  and  broken  here  and  there  by  bare  ridges  of  granite  or 
dark  masses  of  sandstone  rising  above  the  shifting  surface.  Over 
some  portions  a  few  dry,  thorny  bushes  are  sparsely  scattered,  but 
many  acres  produce  neither  twig  nor  blade  of  grass.  The  whole  of 
this  immense  region  would  be  uninhabitable,  and  even  impassable,  but 
for  occasional  spots  of  verdure,  like  islands  in  a  sea  of  sand.  These 
fertile  spots,  or  oases,  vary  in  size,  from  a  well,  shaded  by  a  group  of 
palms,  to  quite  large  tracts  of  pasture  and  cultivated  lauds  arouud 
towns  or  villages.  The  caravan-routes  are  generally  determined 
by  the  oases,  yet  the  want  of  water  is  often  severely  felt.  Sand 
storms  are  also  frequently  encountered,  when  thick  clouds  of  fine 
sand  fill  the  air,  and  so  envelop  man  and  beast  that  the  gasping  trav- 
eller only  avoids  suffocation  by  falling  flat  upon  the  ground. 

Caravans  are  often  attacked  by  plundering  tribes  of  Bedouins,  and 
the  surest  way  to  escape  this  misfortune  is  to  employ  some  of  the 
Arabs  themselves  as  guides  and  protectors. 

SUMMARY. 

North  Africa  consists  of  Egypt,  the  Barbarj'  States,  and  parts 
of  the  desert.  It  is  inhabited  by  Turks,  Arabs,  and  Moors;  and, 
except  Morocco,  which  is  independent,  and  Algeria  belonging  to  the 
French,  is  subject  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion, customs,  and  dress  prevail. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Atlas  region  is  like  that  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores  generally,  including  forests  of  cedar,  laurel,  and 
cypress,  aromatic  plants  i^nd  flowering  shrubs,  with  peach,  apricot, 
and  almond  trees  around  the  towns.     Dates  specially  abound. 

The  manufactures  are  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods,  and  fine 
leather,  especially  morocco,  so  called  from  the  country  of  that  name. 
Trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  means  of  caravans. 

Egypt  consists  of  a  long  valley  watered  and  fertilized  by  the  over- 
flow of  the  Nile,  and  crossed  by  numerous  canals.  Beside  the  cul- 
tivated products,  — -  grain,  flax,  etc.,  —  the  vegetation  is  confined  to 
a  few  trees  about  the  towns  and  water-plants  on  the  canals.  The 
ancient  remains  are  the  pyramids  and  the  ruins  of  Thebes.  The 
chief  cities  are  Cairo  the  capital,  and  Alexandria  the  seaport.     South 

Questions. —  What  is  .said  of  the  people.  Of  Nubia  ?  Of  the  animals  ?  AVliat 
are  the  exports  ?  Where  is  the  Great  Desert  ?  Describe  it.  What  are  oases  ?  Wliat 
is  said  of  sand  storms  ?     What  are  other  dangers  of  the  desert  ? 


of  Egypt  lie  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  and  westward  to  the  Atlantic 
stretches  the  great  Desert  of  Sahara,  uninhabitable  except  on  the 
oases. 

SOUDAN. 

Country.  — ^The  broad  region  immediately  south  of  the  Great  Des- 
ert consists  of  various  provinces,  known  under  the  general  name  of 
Soudan.  Some  portions  of  the  country  are  covered  with  marshes, 
interspersed  with  lakes  and  patches  of  jungle ;  and  others  are 
crossed  by  rocky  ridges,  which  rise  in  turret-shaped  masses,  looking 
in  the  distance  like  ruined  castles.  The  greater  part  of  Soudan, 
however,  is  fertile,  with  wooded  valleys,  green  pastures,  large  culti- 
vated tracts,  populous  towns,  and  scattered  huts. 

Inhabitants.  —  In  this  open  country  the  Mohammedans  from  the 
north  and  the  African  tribes  from  the  south  meet  and  intermingle, 
forming  a  large  population,  half  blacks,  half  Arabs ;  and  large 
cities,  centres  of  trade  between  the  two  races,  have  grown  up 
in  the  very  heart  of  Africa.  The  Negro  tribes  have  become  ex- 
pert in  various  manufactures,  and  their  villages  have  a  thriving  ap- 
pearance. 

The  inhabitants  are  of  three  classes,  —  pastoral  tribes,  agricultur- 
ists, and  the  people  of  towns,  —  and  are  more  or  less  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Mohammedan  government.  Each  province  is  tena- 
cious of  its  own  rights,  and  provincial  feuds  keep  the  country  in  an 
unsettled  state.  This  is  a  serious  drawback  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  country.  The  pastoral  tribes  are  mostly  Arabs  in  the  northern 
part,  who  take  rank  according  to  the  animals  they  keep  :  1,  those 
who  own  camels  ;  2,  those  who  keep  cattle  ;  3,  those  who  have  sheep 
and  goats. 

The  agriculturists  inhabit  the  villages  scattered  over  the  cultivated 
lands,  each  tribe  being  presided  over  by  a  "  sheik,"  who  is  responsi- 
ble to  the  general  government. 

The  cities  have  governors  with  difierent  degrees  of  power,  subject 
to  higher  rulers. 

Vegetation.  — Many  of  the  trees  are  gum-producers,  which  consti- 
tute the  chief  wealth  of  the  eastern  provinces,  where  whole  acres 
are  covered  with  the  gum-arabic  tree.  The  characteristic  palms 
appear  in  groves  and  clusters,  or  are  scattered  singly  over  the  plain. 
The  magnificent  baobab,  with  its  spreading  branches,  casts  a  grateful 
shade.  Along  the  watercourses,  tamarinds  take  the  place  of  our 
willows  ;  and  the  asclcpias,  or  milkweed,  is  the  common  weed  of  the 
country.  Cotton,  millet,  indigo,  and  manioc  are  cultivated  in  irreg- 
ular, unfenced  patches  around  all  the  huts  and  villages. 

Soudan  is  almost  destitute  of  salt,  but  produces  large  quantities 
of  nalron,  or  carbonate  of  soda,  which  lies  in  a  snow-white  crust 
over  the  shallow  lakes.  Tlie  natron  is  stored  in  huge  piles  near  the 
lake,  to  await  the  coming  of  the  next  caravan.  The  villages  have 
usually  a  cheerful,  busy  air,  and  consist  of  well-built  mud-huts  with 
polished  walls,  ornamented  with  designs  or  colored  mats.  The 
women  carry  water,  spin  cotton,  and  pound  corn,  and  the  men  weave 
mats  and  work  in  iron. 

Cities.  —  Several  large  cities  mark  the  line  of  trade  across  the 
country  from  east  to  west,  of  which  Tinibuctoo  is  the  most  western. 
Kano,  Sokoto,  and  Kuka  are  more  central  and  flourishing.  These 
cities  contain  the  circular  thatched  huts  of  the  negroes  side  by  side 

Questions.  —  Where  is  Soudau  ?  AVliat  is  said  of  the  country  ?  By  whom  is  it 
inhabited  ?  Into  what  classes  are  they  divided  ?  What  is  tlie  government  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  pastoral  tiibes  ?  Of  the  agriculturists  ?  What  are  the  i>ioductions  ? 
How  are  cotton  and  iudigo  cultivated  ?  Wliat  is  said  of  iiatrou  ?  Of  the  villages  ? 
Of  the  cities  f 


160 


OUR  WORLD. 


with  the  square,  clay  houses  of 
the  Arabs,  and  are  surrounded  by 
walls  of  considerable  strength. 

Kano,  the  central  emporium  of 
trade,  presents  a  great  variety 
of  clay  houses,  huts,  and  sheds  ; 
green,  open  pastures  for  horses, 
camels,  or  goats ;  ponds  over- 
grown with  water-plants  ;  clus- 
ters of  date-palms  ;  and  people 
in  various  costumes,  from  the 
naked  slave  to  the  gaudily 
dressed  Arab.  Sokoto  is  also  a 
busy  place,  especially  on  market- 
days,  when  fairs  are  "held  on  the 
plain  outside  the  city,  which  is 
covered  with  buyers  and  sellers, 
sheds,  booths,  herds  of  cattle, 
and  piles  of  goods.  Timbuctoo 
stands  on  the  north  bend  of  the 
Niger,  in  the  midst  of  a  flat, 
marsliy  region ;  and  has  a  less 
active  trade  than  the  other  cities. 

The  manufactures  of  these 
cities  consist  chiefly'  of  leather- 
work, —  bags,  belts,  bridles,  and  sandals,  —  and  of  cotton  cloth 
woven  in  small  pieces  and  dyed  with  indigo  for  the  striped  sliirts  or 
gowns  worn  by  the  Negro  tribes.  Earthenware  is  also  made,  and 
a  variety  of  mats  and  baskets.  Ostrich  feathers,  wax,  and  ivory 
are  collected  for  traffic  by  the  natives.  The  foreign  goods  brought 
down  by  the  caravans  from  the  north,  are  calicoes,  silks,  beads, 
needles,  knives,  and  articles  of  Arab  dress,  —  bernous,  red  caps, 
and  shawls.  Large  quantities  of  salt  are  brought  into  Soudan, 
and  the  annual  arrival  of  the  salt-caravan  is  an  event  of  great  im- 
portance. 

REGION  OF  THE  NATIVE  TRIBES. 

The  whole  of  the  interior  country  south  of  Soudan  is  inhabited 
by  native  negroes,  and  is  divided  into  various  provinces,  each  in 
possession  of  an  independent  tribe,  with  its  own  chief  and  laws. 
These  tribes  are  almost  constantly  at  war  with  one  another,  and 
usually  make  slaves  of  their  captives.  They  are  uncivilized,  and 
live  after  the  usual  manner  of  savages,  but  there  are  different  de- 
grees of  intelligence  and  advancement  among  them.  Missionaries 
have  endeavored  to  teach  Christianity  in  a  few  places,  and  the  tribes 
near  thp  coasts  have  considerable  intercourse  with  the  white  settlers. 

The  usual  form  of  government  appears  to  be  partly  patriarchal 
and  partly  despotic.  Each  chief  is,  in  a  manner,  the  father  of  his 
people,  and  bound  to  support  and  protect  them  ;  but  he  has  absolute 
power  over  his  dependents. 

Houses. — The  style  of  building  is  the  same  throughout  all  negro 
land,  —  the  huts  are  low  and  circular,  with  mud  or  clay  walls  and 
conical  roofs,  thatched  with  grass  or  palm  leaves.  They  are  gen- 
erally without  windows,  and  each  hut  has  but  one  low  opening. 
The  huts  are,  however,  much  better  built  in   some  places  than  in 

Questions.  —  What  is  said   of  Kano  ?    Sokoto  ?    Timbuctoo  ?    What  are  the 
manufactures  ?     Wliat   goods   are   brought   by  the    caravans  ?     How  is  the   interior 
I    south  of  Soudan  occupied  ?     Wliat  is  the  condition  of  the  tribes?     What  is  the  gov- 
ernment ?    Describe  the  houses. 


A  Negro  Village. 

others  ;  and  the  roof  is  more  or  less  pointed  or  rounded,  according 
to  the  fashion  of  the  tribe.  Some  tribes  make  their  clay  walls  very 
smooth,  or  even  ornament  them  with  designs  ;  others  cover  the  in- 
side walls  with  mats.  The  more  thrifty  and  industrious  tribes  have 
stages  for  drying  manioc-roots  or  fruits  ;  and  reed-cages  for  keeping 
fowls.  The  furniture  consists  of  a  few  earthenware  jars  for  grain 
and  water,  mats  and  baskets  of  palm  leaves,  and  calabashes  or 
gourds,  which  ai'e  used  for  bowls  and  cups. 

The  villages  are  only  collections  of  these  huts,  often  surrounded 
with  patches  of  grain,  cotton,  and  manioc.  -^ 

The  dress  of  these  tribes  is  very  simple,  consisting  usually  of  a 
short  skirt  of  cloth  or  skin,  though  the  more  intelligent  tribes 
wear  loose  cotton  gowns  of  their  own  manufacture.  Anklets  and 
bracelets  of  iron  or  silver  are  worn,  often  so  heavy  as  to  blister  the 
limbs.  Even  in  the  wilds  of  Africa  people  suffer  for  fashion's  sake  ; 
some  file  their  teeth  to  a  sharp  point,  so  that  their  smile  resembles 
the  grin  of  an  alligator  ;  and  others  knock  out  the  front  teeth  as  soon 
as  they  are  grown.  Faces  are  hideously  tattooed  ;  the  hair  is  knotted 
into  uncouth  styles";  tind  oil  is  used  freely  on  hair  and  skin. 

There  are  only  the  rudest  methods  of  agriculture,  and  grain  is 
ground  between  two  round,  flat  stones,  moved  one  upon  the  other 
by  hand.  The  more  advanced  tribes  work  in  metals  and  weave  cot- 
ton cloth  in  small  pieces  of  four  or  five  yards  each.  Palm  leaves, 
grass,  and  rushes  are  manufactured  into  a  variety  of  mats,  baskets, 
and  nets  ;  and  earthenware  is  made  by  all  the  tribes,  but  in  diflerent 
degrees  of  perfection,  from  rough  bowls  to  well-formed,  highly'  pol- 
ished jars  and  platters.     Indigo  and  several  other  dyes  are  used. 

The  country.  —  Large  tracts  of  this  country  are  covered  with 
forests  alternating  with  open  glades  ;  and  palms  prevail  in  all  vari- 
eties, with  tamarinds,  acacias,  and  other  tropical  vegetation.  The 
broad  region  inundated  by  the  Zambesi  and  its  branches  is  an  oozy 
swamp  for  a  great  part  of  the  year,  overgrown  with  tall  grass  and 
reeds,  interwoven  with    convolvulus,  whose    strong  stems  are  like 


Questions.  —  Describe  the  villages.     The  dress.     What  is  said  of  agriculture  and 
manufactures  ?    Of  the  country  ?     Of  the  Zambesi  region  I 


AFRICA. 


161 


whip-cord.     Here  crocodiles  and  hippopotami  luxiiriate  in  the  shallow 
streams,  and  snakes  and  otters  abound  in  the  reedy  waste. 

North  of  the  Orange  River  extends  the  Kalahari  Desert,  —  a  barren 
plain  sparsely  covered  with  tufts  of  coarse  grass,  patches  of  bush, 
and  a  few  thorn-trees.  There  are  no  streams  or  ponds,  and  the 
wretched,  half-starved  Hottentots  who  inhabit  the  country  can  only 
obtain  water  by  digging  holes  where  the  sand  shows  some  signs 
of  moisture,  and  waiting  for  them  to  fill  slowly.  The  women  often 
walk  several  miles  in  search  of  these  spots  of  moisture,  carrying 
empty  ostrich-eggs  to  be  filled  with  water.  For  a  little  while  after 
the  rainy  season  the  plain  is  covered  with  creeping  plants  and  a  kind 
of  bitter  melon,  eagerly  devoured  by  men  and  beasts. 

COLONIES. 

The  Cape  Lands.  —  In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  a 
Portuguese  navigator,  while  looking  for  a  passage  to  India,  discovered 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  no  settlements  were  then  made.  In 
1650  the  Dutch,  who  were  by  that  time  carrying  on  a  regular  trade 
with  the  East  Indies,  established  a  colony  at  the  Cape,  where  their 
vessels  could  stop  for  repairs  or  supplies  on  the  long  voyage.  But 
there  was  nothing  to  attract  emigrants  in  large  numbers,  and  the 
growth  of  the  settlement  was  slow.  Early  in  the  present  century, 
during  a  war  between  the  English  and  Dutch,  Cape  Colony  came  into 
possession  of  the  English,  who  used  it  as  a  place  of  exile  for  their 
convicts  until  the  penal  colony  was  established  in  Australia.  Since 
then  the  Cape-colony  has  improved  greatly  in  character  and  in  num- 
bers. The  English  now  own  the  provinces  of  Cape  Colony  and 
Natal,  including  about  a  thousand  miles  of  coast,  and,  beside  Cape 
Town,  several  important  towns  have  grown  up. 

Cape  Town.  — The  coast  is  neither  bold  nor  rockj',  but  presents  a 
succession  of  headlands  or  promontories,  the  chief  of  which  are  Cape 
Agulhas,  the  most  southern  point  of  Africa,  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  upon  which  the  town  is  built. 

The  white,  flat-roofed  houses,  with  terraces  fronting  the  bay,  make 
a  striking  appearance.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out  in  the  old  Dutch 
style,  with  canals  in  the  principal  streets,  and  the  avenues  are  lined 
with  oaks,  pines,  and  poplars.  In  the  background  Table  Mountain 
rises  almost  perpendicularly  to  a  height  of  eighteen  hundred  feet, 
flanked  on  each  side  by  barren  crags.  Pretty  villas  stand  on  the 
heights  around,  and  well-kept  walks  overlook  the  town  and  bay. 

The  country.  —  Inland  the  land  rises  in  a  succession  of  terraces 
toward  the  Orange  River,  and  consists  mostly  of  rather  dry  plains 
and  bare  ridges.  Grain  is  cultivated  near  the  settlements,  and  there 
are  fine  vineyai'ds  which  produce  the  sweet  Constautia  wine,  exported 
from  the  Cape.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  country  is  unfit  for 
agriculture,  because  the  streams  are  mostly  mere  torrents  which  dry 
up  during  the  long  droughts,  leaving  deep  i-avines.  Large  tracts  are 
available  for  pasturage,  and  stock  and  sheep  raising  is  the  business 
of  the  country.     The  "  Cape  wool  "  is  quite  famous. 

When  the  English  took  possession  of  Cape  Colony,  the  new  gov- 
ernment was  regarded  with  disfavor  by  the  Dutch  farmers  who  had 
settled  there,  mainly  on  account  of  a  law  which  forbade  the  holding 
of  Hottentot  slaves.  Most  of  these  farmers,  therefore,  retreated 
northward  beyond  the  British  rule,  forming  an  independent  commu- 
nity of  stock-farmers,  known  as  "  Boers." 

Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  Kalahari  Desert  and  its  inhabitants  ?  When 
and  by  whom  were  the  Cape  Lands  discovered  ?  By  whom  settled  ?  What  of  the 
Dutch  colony  ?  How  did  the  English  get  pos.session  ?  What  of  the  colony  since  it 
has  been  owned  by  the  English  ?  Describe  Cape  Town.  The  country  northward. 
What  is  the  chief  occupation  ?    Who  are  the  Boers  ? 


The  common  mode  of  transportation  in  South  Africa  is  by  means 
of  great  bullock-carts,  known  as  "  Cape  wagons,"  which  take  wool, 
hides,  etc.,  to  the  coast,  and  carry  goods  from  the  towns  to  the 
inland  villages  and  farms. 

Vegetation.  —  Cape  Colony  has  a  vegetation  peculiar  to  itself,  and 
for  beautiful  flowers  and  every  kind  of  fleshy,  prickly  growth  it 
is  unrivalled.  Great  succulent  euphorbias  with  leafless,  prickly 
branches  ;  various  beautiful  geraniums ;  the  gladiolus  and  other 
bulbs,  known  in  our  gardens  as  "  Cape  bulbs,"  all  grow  wild  here. 
Countless  varieties  of  heath  prevail,  and  for  miles  at  a  time  the 
country  is  covered  with  "  bush  "  or  thickets  of  fleshy,  thorny 
plants,  chiefly  of  the  aloe  kind,  many  of  which  have  flowers  of 
great  beauty. 

Animals.  —  Many  of  the  larger  animals  of  Africa  are  found  here  ; 
especially  those  which  go  in  herds  and  like  an  open  country,  —  buf- 
faloes, antelopes,  zebras,  gnus,  etc. 

Ca£Eraria.  —  The  southeast  slope  of  this  region  of  terraces,  south 
of  Orange  river,  is  an  exception  to  the  dry,  bare  character  of  the 
country  generally.  Wooded  mountain-slopes  and  fertile,  well- 
watered  valleys  make  a  fine  province,  which  belongs  to  a  tribe  of 
natives  known  as  CafiBrs.  These  people  are  tall,  well-formed,  and 
among  the  most  intelligent  of  the  natives.  Bold  and  brave,  they 
have  sturdily  resisted  the  encroachments  of  the  English,  with  whom 
they  have  kept  up  almost  constant  warfare. 

East  and  West  Coasts.  —  The  narrow  strips  of  lowland  along 
the  coasts  consist  of  sand,  salt  marshes,  and  alluvial  flats,  over- 
grown with  mangroves  and  rice.  The  rank  exhalations  drawn  from 
such  a  soil  by  the  heat  of  the  tropical  sun  fill  the  air  with  a  miasma 
fatal  to  white  men.  Rivers  are  numerous,  but  are  so  obstructed  by 
sand  bars  at  their  mouths  as  to  make  navigation  impossible.  Inland 
rise  hills  and  mountains,  making  a  pleasant  upland  country,  cooler 
and  more  healthy  than  the  coast.  Along  these  coasts  are  coflee  and 
sugar  plantations  ;  and  peanuts  are  extensively  cultivated  for  the  oil 
obtained  from  them,  which  is  a  substitute  for  olive-oil.  The  castor- 
oil  plant  also  grows  here,  and  the  manioc  and  banana. 

Liberia  and  Sierra  Leone  are  settlements  of  free  blacks  on  the 
west  coast,  the  former  established  by  Americans,  the  latter  by  the 
English.  Missionaries  have  been  teaching  there  for  many  years  ; 
there  are  schools  and  churches ;  and  the  better  class  of  people, 
chiefly  merchants,  live  in  comfortable  and  often  handsome  houses. 
Liberia  is  a  republic,  with  a  constitution  resembling  our  own.  Mon- 
rovia is  the  capital.     Free  Town  is  the  capital  of  Sierra  Leone. 

AsHANTEE  AND  Dahomey,  kingdoms  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  belong 
to  two  of  the  most  powerful  native  tribes,  as  cruel  as  they  are 
strong,  whose  names  have  long  been  associated  with  every  kind  of 
outrage  upon  colonists  and  upon  each  other. 

Towns  of  the  West  Coast.  —  Notwithstanding  the  dreaded  fever, 
and  the  sand  bars,  which  in  some  places  make  the  coast  quite  inac- 
cessible, some  foreign  settlements  have  grown  up  along  this  inhos- 
pitable shore.  The  earliest  were  the  Portuguese  colonies,  which  had 
only  a  short  period  of  prosperity.  Their  towns  consist  of  one  or 
two  ruined  cathedrals  and  substantial  government  buildings  in  close 
neighborhood  with  the  mud-huts  of  the  natives.  The  residents  are 
a  few  educated  officials  and  priests^  a  regiment  of  idle  soldiers,  and 
a  small  number  of  merchants.  San  Paulo  de  Loanda  is  the  chief 
town,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor-general. 


Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  transportation  ?  Of  vegetation  ?  Animals  ?  Of 
Caffiaria  ?  Of  the  east  and  west  coasts  ?  Of  Liberia  and  Sierra  Leone  ?  What  is 
said  of  two  powerful  native  kingdoms  ?  Of  the  Portuguese  settlements  on  the  west 
coast  ?    What  is  their  chief  town  ? 


162 


OUR  WORLD. 


The  small  English  trading-towns,  Bathurst  and  others,  are  quite 
similar  in  appearance,  with  "streets  of  burning  sand;  a  score  or 
two  of  white  houses  blazing  in  the  sun  ;  court-yards  with  fowls 
and  goats,  and  naked  boys  pounding  corn  ;  wattle  and  daub  huts  ; 
stalls  for  fruit  and  palm-wine  at  the  street  corners  ;  drunken  sailors ; 
traders,  dressed  all  in  white,  hurrying  by  with  business  faces  under 
broad  straw  hats ;  and  dusky  savages,  with  spears,  gaping  at  tlie 
sights." 

Along  the  streams  are  groups  of  native  huts  surrounded  by  ba- 
nanas, palms,  and  patches  of  grain  or  manioc. 

Gold-dust,  washed  from  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable'  exports,  and  a  portion  of  the  coast  is  known  as  the  Gold 
Coast.  Ivory,  beeswax,  cstrich  feathers,  and  gums  are  obtained 
from  the  interior  by  moans  of  native  traders,  who  make  long  jour- 
neys on  foot,  carrying  from  the  coast  towns,  guns,  knives,  calico, 
beads,  etc. 

The  East  Coast  resembles  the  west  coast,  except  that  the  Eng- 
lish towns  are  fewer  and  smaller,  and  the  Portuguese  towns  still 
more  dull  and  lifeless.  The  Portuguese  colonics  were  formerly 
more  prosperous,  cultivated  wheat,  coffee,  and  indigo,  and  carried  on 
extensive  gold-dust  washings.  But,  giving  up  everj'thing  for  the 
slave-trade,  they  declined  rapidly.  Now  there  is  little  agriculture 
and  less  trade. 

Madagascar.  —  This  large  island  off  the  east  coast  is  inhabited 
by  Malay  and  negro  tribes.  It  resembles  South  Africa  in  climate  and 
productions.  A  lofty  mountain-range,  rich  in  iron,  runs  the  whole 
length  of  the  island,  and  there  are  large,  navigable  rivers  ;  but  the 
interior  is  little  known.     Tananarive  is  the  capital. 

SUMMARY. 

Soudan  is  the  common  ground  of  the  Arab  and  negro  races,  the 
limit  of  the  Mohammedan  dominion  in  Africa,  and  the  end  of  the 
caravan-routes  from  Barbary.  The  cities  of  Kano,  Sokoto,  and 
Kuka  are  great  trading  centres  between  the  two  races. 

Almost  the  whole  of  the  country  from  Lake  Tchad  southward  is 
occupied  by  various  native  tribes,  all  uncivilized,  but  of  different 
degrees  of  intelligence,  from  the  wretched  Hottentots,  who  scarcely 
find  food  and  shelter  for  themselves,  to  the  tribes  of  Soudan  and  the 
coast  provinces,  who  make  cotton  cloth,  work  in  metals,  and  culti- 
vate cotton,  grain,  and  indigo.  They  wear  little  clothing,  live  in 
circular  huts  thatched  with  palm  leaves,  and  are  frequently  at  war, 
using  iron  spears  and  shields  of  hippopotamus-skin  of  their  own  manu- 
facture. Those  who  come  in  contact  with  the  Arabs  of  Soudan  and 
the  foreigners  on  the  coasts  carry  on  considerable  trade,  exchanging 
elephants'  tusks,  ostrich  feathers,  and  beeswax  for  knives,  guns, 
shot,  beads,  calico,  etc. 

Along  the  coasts  are  a  number  of  colonies  or  trading-towns  be- 
longing chiefly  to  the  English  and  Portuguese.  Cape  Colony,  a 
large  province,  rising  in  ridges  or  terraces  from  the  coast  to  the 
Orange  River,  was  first  settled  by  tlie  Dutch,  but  now  belongs  to  the 
English.  The  country  is  dry  and  unfit  for  agriculture,  but  is  admi- 
rably adapted  for  stock-raising,  which  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
people.  Cape  Town,  Elizabeth,  Graham's  Town,  and  other  thriving 
towns  export  wool,  hides,  and  wine.  On  the  east  and  west  coasts 
are  small  trading-towns  which  export  rice,  gold-dust,  palm-oil,  castor- 
oil,  peanuts,  and  tapioca.  Ivory,  wax,  and  ostrich  feathers,  col- 
lected by  the  natives  of  the  interior,  are  important  exports  of  all  the 
coast  settlements. 

Questions.  —  Describe  the  English  towns.  What  are  the  exports  of  the  coast 
legion  ?    What  is  said  of  the  east  coast  settlements  ?    Of  Madagascar  ? 


GENERAL  REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

How  is  Africa  bounded  ?  What  sea  separates  it  from  Europe  ?  What  one  from 
Arabia  ?  What  strait  opens  into  the  Red  Sea  ?  What  isthmus  connects  Africa  witli 
Asia  ?  What  gulf  west  of  Afiica  ?  Between  what  degrees  of  latitude  does  Africa  lie  ? 
Which  countries  are  in  the  north  temperate  zone  ?  Which  in  the  south  temperate  ? 
Wliat  effect  has  the  solid  form  of  the  continent  on  the  climate  ?  What  is  the  extent 
of  the  Great  Desert  ?  What  other  desert,  and  where  1  How  do  the  mountains  run  ? 
Where  are  the  Atlas  Mountains  ?  The  Lupata  Mountains  ?  Where  are  the  highest 
mountains  ?  In  what  region  does  the  Nile  rise  ?  Into  what  does  it  flow  ?  Where  is  the 
Niger  ?  The  Zambesi  ?  Orange  ?  Congo  ?  Senegal  ?  Gambia  ?  What  are  the  lakes  of 
Africa  ?  What  countries  border  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ?  On  the  Red  Sea  ?  What  is 
tlie  surface  of  IJarbary  ?  Of  Egypt  ?  How  is  Egypt  fertilized  ?  Wliat  is  the  appearance 
of  the  country  in  Sahara  ?  What  countries  on  the  west  coast  ?  How  does  the  desert 
of  Kalahari  differ  from  the  Gi-eat  Desert  ?  What  part  of  Africa  is  marshy  and  crossed 
by  many  streams  ?  What  are  the  characteristic  trees  of  Africa  ?  What  vegetation 
prevails  in  the  Atlas  Mountain-region  ?  What  parts  of  Africa  and  of  Europe  have  a 
similar  vegetation  ?  In  what  part  of  Africa  do  bulbs  and  heath  grow  ?  What  is  the 
largest  shade-tree  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  the  palms  ?  Of  manioc  ?  Where  and  from 
what  is  castor-oil  obtained  ?  What  do  the  tribes  of  the  interior  cultivate  ?  How  do 
the  animals  of  Africa  compare  with  those  of  other  continents  ?  What  are  some  of  the 
largest  animals  ?  What  animals  frequent  rivers  and  marshes  ?  Which  herd  together  ? 
What  animals  are  found  on  or  near  deserts  ?  AVhy  is  the  camel  fitted  for  travelling  on 
the  desert  ?  By  whom  is  the  northern  half  of  Africa  inhabited  ?  The  southern  half  ? 
Why  are  there  large  trading-towns  in  Soudan  ?  Mention  them.  Where  is  the  cara- 
van-trade earned  on  ?  Where  have  Europeans  made  settlement*  in  Africa  ?  To  whom 
does  Cape  Colony  belong  ?  What  are  the  chief  towns  ?  Fsr  what  is  the  country 
fitted  ?  What  is  the  mode  of  inland  transportation  ?  What  are  the  exports  ?  What 
kind  of  towns  along  the  east  and  west  coasts  ?  What  is  exported  from  them  ?  What 
exports  are  obtained  from  the  natives  of  the  interior  ?  What  is  the  condition  of  the 
native  tribes  ?  AVhat  kind  of  houses  have  they  ?  What  manufactures  ?  What  religion 
and  customs  prevail  in  North  Africa  ?     What  manufactures  ? 


SPECIAL  TEEMS  FOR  ASIA  AND  AFRICA. 


/ 


Mandarin.  —  A  Chinese  official. 

Coolie.  —  A  Chinese  laborer  or  porter. 

Brahmins.  —  Priests  or  persons  of  the  highest  social  rank  in  India. 

Pariah.  —  One  who  has  lost. caste  in  India. 

Lama.  —  A  Buddhist  priest. 

Farsees.  —  The  descendants  of  the  old  Persian  fire-worshippers. 

Imaum.  —  A  Mohammedan  teacher  or  priest. 

Sultan.  —  The  title  of  the  ruler  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  and  of  other  Eastern  rulere. 

Caliph.  —  The  title  given  to  the  Mohammedan  ruler  in  the  time  of  the  Arabian 

ascendancy. 
Pasha.  —  The  governor  or  viceroy  of  a  country  under  the  Sultan. 
Bedouins. —  Wandering  tribes  of  Arabs  in  Noi'th  Africa  and  Western  Asia. 
Sheik.  —  A  chief  in  Mohammedan  countries. 
Hottentots.  —  The  most  degraded  of  the  tribes  in  South  Africa. 
Henna.  —  A  plant  yielding  a  yellowish  juice,  used  by  the  Mohammedan  women  for 

coloring  their  nails. 
Kohl.  —  A  black  jiowder,  used  by  Mohammedan  women  for  painting  the  eyebrows. 
Lacquer.  —  A  varnish  made  from  the  gum  of  a  tree  in  Japan. 
Lac.  —  A  resin  formed  on  trees  by  the  puncture  of  the  lac-insect,  chiefly  obtained 

from  the  Banyan-tree. 
Bush.  —  The  name  applied  to  a  dense  growth  of  aloes,  cacti,  and  fleshy,  thorny  plants 

covering  large  tracts  in  South  Africa  and  Australia. 
Bamboo.  —  A  gigantic  reed,  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  by  the  people  of  China, 

Jajian,  and  India. 
Junk.  —  A  Chinese  vessel. 
Palanquin.  —  A  long  box  or  carriage  on  poles,  borne  by  men,  which  is  much  used 

in  India  for  travelling. 
Mosque.  —  The  Mohammedan  house  of  worship. 
Minarets.  —  Slender  towers  on  the  mosques. 

Harem.  —  The  portion  of  a  Alohammedan  house  devoted  to  the  women. 
Seraglio.  — Name  given  to  the  harem  of  the  Sultan. 
Caftan.  —  The  long,  loose  gown  worn  by  Persians  and  Turks. 
Koran.  —  The  sacred  book  of  the  Mohammedans. 

Khan. —  An  luifurnLshcd  house  to  shelter  travellers  in  the  Turkish  Empire. 
Calabash.  —  A  gourd  growing  on  a  tree  in  Africa  and  South  America,  the  rind  used 

for  bowls,  and  the  pulp  eaten. 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  ISLANDS. 


1G:3 


AUSTRALIA    AND    THE    ISLANDS 


[Take  the  Study  of  the  Map  here.     (See  page  165.)] 


DESCRIPTION. 


Surface.  —  The  greater  part  of  Australia  is  a  dry,  sterile  plain, 
with  hilly  districts  rising  from  it  like  islands.  Some  parts  are  sandy, 
others  grassy,  and  large  tracts  are  covered  with  low,  prickly  plants 
and  scrubby  shrubs  called  "  bush."  The  eastern  part  is  more  or  loss 
mountainous,  and  quite  well  wooded  and  watered.  The  climate  is 
generally  fine,  especially  in  the  southern  parts  ;  but  there  are  long, 
irregular  periods  of  drought.  Hot  winds  blow  frequently  from  the 
interior  toward  the  coast,  bringing  a  fine  dust,  painful  to  the  eyes. 

Vegetation.  —  The  fertile  parts  of  Australia  are  open,  park-like  in 
appearance,  and  the  prevailing  trees  are  acacias,  often  with  two  kindw 


Branch  of  Acacia. 

of  foliage,  and  various  species  of  eucalypti,  also  called ^gum-troon 
with  their  leathery,  dark,  narrow-leaved  foliage.  River-oak,  sandal- 
wood, and  rosewood  furnish  hard  timber  for  building  purposes  and 
furniture.  Scarcely  any  native  fruits  are  found  ;  but  the  flowers 
are  abundant  and  brilliant,  and  Australian  ferns  are  remarkable  for 
their  size  and  bea\ity.  Many  of  the  gum-trees  have  showy  blos- 
soms, and  the  golden  flowers  of  the  wattle  are  conspicuous.  Long 
festoons  of  the  sarsaparilla  often  hang  from  the  acacias,  and  the 
bush  is  covered  for  miles  with  flowers  of  varied  colors. 

The  Animals  are  small  and  mostly  marsupials,  the  largest  of  which 
are  the  kangaroos,  remarkable  for  their  long  hind-legs  and  great 
leaps.  Birds  and  water-fowl  abound,  and  the  gigantic  bird  called 
the  emu,  found  only  in  this  region,  is  sometimes  seven  feet  high. 

The  Natives  have  dark  skins  and  long,  curling  hair.  Some  of  the 
southern  tribes  are  mild  and  timid.  Others  are  fierce,  and  some  of 
them  cannibals.  They  are  neither  industrious  nor  intelligent.  They 
manufacture  only  rood-baskets  and  mats,  and  their  dwellings  aro 
formed  by  tying  down  branches  of  trees  into  a  sort  of  bower,  or  by 
spreading  a  few  strips  of  bark  over  poles. 


Questions.  —  Describe  the  surface  of  Australia. 
maU.     Natives. . 


The  cliuiate.     Vegetation.     Ani- 


The  Emu. 

Colonies.  —  Australia  nominally  belongs  to  the  English,  who 
have  settled  chiefly  along  the  southeast  coast,  much  of  the  interior 
being  still  unexplored.  The  most  important  provinces  arc  New 
South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South  Australia.  The  capitals  and  chief 
cities  are  Sydney,  Melbourne,  and  Adelaide. 

Australia  was  discovered  by  the  Dutch,  but  settled  by  the  Eng- 
lish. In  1787  the  first  English  colony  was  established,  as  a  place 
of  exile  for  convicts,  who  were  sent  to  Australia  as  they  had  been 
previously  to  South  Africa  ;  so  that  it  soon  became  the  custom 
to  talk  of  "a  trip  to  Botany  Baj' "  for  the  London  thieves.  The 
cliaracter  of  the  colony  gradually  improved  ;  for,  as  the  climate  was 
good,  the  country  fine  for  sheep-raising,  and  land  cheap,  hard-working 


Questions.  —  To  whom  diws  Australia  belong?  What  are  the  principal  prov- 
inces ?  Chief  cities  ?  By  whom  was  Australia  discovered  ?  Settled  ?  For  what 
purpose  ?    M'hat  is  said  of  the  early  condition  of  the  colony  ? 


Oif  . ihpl-oa^ituae    llo  Kaaf  from 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  ISLANDS. 


165 


STUDY   OF   THE  MAP. 

Area  of  Australia,  about  3,000,000  square  miles. 

Australia  lies  entirely  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  between  the  Indian  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  and  is  the  smallest  of  the  continents.  It  extends  from  10°  to  39° 
south  latitude,  and  is  therefore  in  the  torrid  and  south  temperate  zones. 

The  coast  is  uniform  ;  the  few  indentations  of  any  size  are  the  Gulf  of  C a 

on  the  north,  and  S r  Bay  andA -n  Bight  on  the  south.     M n  Bay 

and  B y  Bay  are  small  bays  on  the  east  coast. 

Capes.  — •  The  most  noi  thern  point  is  Cape  Y k.     On  the  east  are  Point 

D r  and  Cape  H e.     Cape  VV n  forms  the  southern  point ;  and  on  the 

west  are  Cape  L n  and  N h  \V 1  Cape.     S h  Cape  is  south  of 

Tasmania. 

Ska.s.  —  Chains  of  islands  on  the  north  and  east  shut  in  A a  Sea,  C- — -I 

Sea,  and  the  Se  i  of  New  Z d. 

IsLAN  D8.  —  The   largest   of   the   surrounding   islands   are    P i   or   New 

G a,  T a  or   Van   D n's  Land,  and   the   three  isl  nds  called  New 

Z d. 

MouNTAixs.  —  The  highesit  mountains  are  the  A n  A s  in  the  south- 
east.    The  B e  Mountains  follow  the  east  coast  from  Cape  H c  to  Point 

D r,  subsiding  into  low  hills  beyond. 

Rivers.  —  Australia  is  almost  destitute  of  navigable  rivers,  and  mimy  of  the 
small  streams,  as  well  aa  the  lakes,  become  mere  pools  or  marshes  in  dry  seasons, 
so  that  they  cannot  even  be  used  for  irrigation.  The  only  large  rivers  are  the 
M yand  the  U g  which  Hows  into  it. 

BouNDARiKS.  —  Australia  is  bounded  on  the  North  by  ?  On  the  East  by? 
South  by  ?     West  by  ? 

The  six  divisions  are  West,  North,  and  South  Australia,  Queen's  Land,  New 
South  Wales,  and  Victoria. 

[Continued  from  page  163.] 

people  went  out  to  try  their  fortune  at  stock-farming.  GVjnvicts  were 
allowed  to  labor  under  the  free  settlers,  on  conditioM  of  good  behavior, 
and  some  became  farmers  or  merciiants.  After  a  time  no  more  con- 
victs were  sent  to  the  mainland,  but  to  the  island  of  Tasmania. 

Several  settlements  had  grown  up,  and  the  cultivation  of  grain  was 
becoming  profitable,  when,  in  1850,  gold  was  discovered  in  large 
quantities  along  the  Murray  River.  Then  there  was  a  rush,  not  only 
from  the  coast  settlements,  but  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Adven- 
turers, vagabonds,  and  people  in  search  of  fortune,  all  made  their 
way  to  "  the  diggings."  In  these  days,  when  travelling  has  become 
easy,  and  useful  inventions  have  multiplied,  settling  a  new  country 
is  not  what  it  was  formerly,  and  it  required  but  a  few  years  to  make 
comfortable  homes  in  the  Australiati  wilderness.  Now  there  are 
several  millions  of  people  in  the  provinces,  large  farms,  a  number 
of  small  towns  along  the  coast,  and  the  three  thriving  cities  of  Mel- 
bourne, Sydney,  and  Adelaide,  with  substantial  buildings,  and  wide 
streets,  well  paved  and  lighted  with  gas.  From  these  cities  large 
quantities  of  gold  and  wool  are  exported,  and  also  copper,  skins, 
and  tallow. 

Melbourne,  the  capital  of  the  colony  of  Victoria,  is  pleasantly  sit- 
uated on  the  little  river  Yarra,  near  the  head  of  the  large  bay  called 
Port  Philip.  There  are  not  oidy  fine  houses,  large  shops,  and  good 
hotels,  but  theatres,  libraries,  and  museums.  The  Botanical  Gardens, 
on  the  river-bank,  are  beautifully  laid  out,  and  exhibit  many  plants 
and  animals  peculiar  to  Australia.  Along  the  river  for  some  distance 
are  country  houses,  surrounded  by  verandas  covered  with  gay- 
colored  creepers,  and  with  gardens  sloping  to  the  water. 

Victoria  is  less  subject  to  severe  droughts  than  New  South  Wales  ; 
yet  water  is  scarce  and  often  brackish.     In  some  localities  the  dry 

Questiona.  —  What  caused  a  large  emigration  ?  Wliat  is  the  present  condition  ! 
What  are  the  chief  exports  ?  Describe  Melbourne.  What  is  said  of  the  want  of 
water  ? 


ravines  are  covered  with  skeletons  of  animals  which  have  died  of 
thirst. 

The  gold-region  occupies  the  whole  valley  of  the  Murray  Kiver. 
The  principal  mines  are  at  Balarat  and  Burra  Burra. 

One  remnant  of  the  old  convict  days  still  remains.  Suspicious- 
looking  parties  of  horsemen,  called  bushrangers,  are  sometimes  seen 
on  by-roads,  and  raids  are  occasionally  made  on  solitary  farms.  Eager 
explorers  are  warned  not  to  go  too  far  without  escort,  for  fear  of  reck- 
less outlaws  who  live  a  wandering  life  in  the  bush. 

The  open  nature  of  the  Australian  wilds  makes  tliem  a  rare  hunting- 
ground,  though  there  is  nothing  here  so  exciting  as  the  lion  or  ele- 
phant hunts  of  Africa.  Kangaroo-hunting  is  the  popular  amusement, 
and  is  not  unlike  fox-hunting  in  England. 


Kiingaroo-hunt. 

Islands.  —  Tasmania.  —  The  coast  consists  almost  entirely  of  bold, 
rocky  cliffs,  and  the  whole  island  is  too  rugged  and  mountainous  to 
support  a  large  population  ;  yet  the  English  colony  is  prospering, 
and  Ilobart  Town  is  not  far  behind  Adelaide  or  Sydney. 

New  Zealand.  — These  large  islands,  southeast  of  Australia,  were 
discovered  by  the  Dutch,  but  are  now  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  Eng- 
lish colony.     Auckland  is  the  chief  town.    (See  map  on  page  30.) 

Papua,  or  New  Guinea,  is  almost  entirely  in  possession  of  native 
savage  tribes  ;  and  its  great  natural  resources  are  undeveloped. 

East  Indies.  —  Between  Australia  and  Asia  arc  numerous  islands 
in  groups  of  various  names.  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  other  large 
islands  are  crossed  by  mountain-ridges,  alternating  with  fertile  val- 
leys and  numerous  rivers,  and  are  covered  with  a  luxuriant  tropical 
vegetation,  including  teak,  ebony,  gutta-percha,  camphor,  and  bread- 
fruit trees,  immense  ferns  and  gorgeous  flowers.  Tlieciiltivuted  pro- 
ducts are  rice,  cotton,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  and  indigo. 

The  animal  kingdom  is  largely  represented  by  elephants,  leop- 
ards, orang-outangs,  crocodiles,  eagles,  parrots,  birds  of  paradise, 
peacocks,  flamingoes,  and  other  beasts  and  birds  of  tlie  torrid  zone. 
Coal,  iron,  and  precious  stones  exist,  and  the  resources  of  these 
islands  .appear  to  be  inexhaustible,  but  as  yet  the  European  colonies 
are  comparatively  small. 

Borneo,  much  larger  than  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  together,  is 
inhabited  by  several  races,  chiefly  Malays,  partly  uncivilized  Moham- 
medans, and  partly  pagans.     The  Dutch  have  some  settlements  on 


Questions.  —  Where  is  the  gold-region  ?  What  are  the  chief  mines  ?  Who  are 
bushrangers?  What  is  said  of  Imnting?  Of  Tivsmania  ?  Of  New  Zealand  ?  Of 
Papua  ?  Where  are  the  East  Indies  ?  Which  are  the  largest  islands  ?  What  are  tlie 
productions?     Animals?     Minerals?    What  is  said  of  liorneo  ? 


166 


OUR  WORLD. 


the  island,  and  the  English  have  gained  control  of  the  west  coast, 
but  have  many  difficulties  with  the  natives. 

Sumatra  contains  quite  extensive  Dutch  settlements,  which  carry 
on  an  active  trade  in  pepper,  rice,  gums,  etc. 

Java,  celebrated  for  its  coflee,  is  in  possession  of  the  Dutch,  and 
is  said  to  be  the  best  governed  of  all  the  East  India  colonies.  Bata- 
via,  the  capital  and  residence  of  the  governor-general  of  the  Dutch 
colonies,  has  held  a  prominent  place  in  the  commercial  world  from 
the  first  establishment  of  the  India  trade. 

Celebes,  with  its  capital.  Macassar,  also  belongs  to  the  Dutch. 

The  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands,  produce  the  common  spices  in 
abundance,  especially  cloves,  which  were  for  a  long  time  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  these  islands. 


Branch  of  a  Clove-tree. 

The  Philippixr  Islands,  belonging  to  Spain,  are  more  generally 
settled  by  the  whites  than  many  of  the  other  islands,  and  exhibit  all 
the  Spanish  characteristics  as  to  houses,  dress,  and  customs.  The 
islands  are  mountainous  and  volcanic,  and  have  suifered  from  violent 
eruptions,  as  well  as  from  the  storms  and  hurricanes  which  prevail 
in  the  China  seas.  The  scenery  is  picturesque,  varying  from  valleys 
with  their  winding  streams,  villages,  and  thickets  of  bamboo,  plan- 
tain, and  bread-fruit,  overtopped  by  tall  palms,  to  rugged  mountains, 
dense  forests,  and  steep  paths,  where  palanquins  are  much  used. 

Rice,  bananas,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane  are  cultivated,  and  espe- 
cially tobacco  ;  the  chief  industrial  pursuit  being  the  manufacture 
of  the  Manila  cigars,  which  are  almost  as  well  known  in  Europe 
and  America  as  those  of  Havana.     Manila  hemp,  really  a  species  of 

QuestionB.  —  What  is  said  of  Sumatra  ?  Of  ,Iava  ?  What  is  its  capital  ?  What 
is  said  of  Celeljes  ?  Of  the  Moluccas  ?  Of  the  Philippines  ?  What  are  the  produc- 
tions ?     What  exports  are  well  known  ? 


plantain,  is  used  for  making  cordage,  mats,  etc.,  and  largely'  ex- 
ported to  the  United  States.  The  bamboo  is  as  abundant  and  as 
generally  used  as  in  China.  The  chief  cities  are  Manila,  the  capi- 
tal, and  Binondo,  on  opposite  shores  of  the  same  bay,  on  the  island 
of  Luzon.  Here  are  the  immense  cigar-establishments,  employing 
thousands  of  men  and  women,  many  of  whom  live  in  the  neighboring 
country-villages.  Almost  as  celebrated  as  the  Manila  cigars  is  the 
beautil'ul  pina,  a  fine  fabric  woven  of  the  fibres  of  the  pineapple  leaf 
with  a  simple  bamboo-loom,  and  often  embroidered  by  the  women. 
Cotton  and  silk  goods  are  manufactured  to  son)e  extent,  and  also 
coarse  fabrics  of  hemp  and  of  the  fibres  of  the  palm  leaf. 

Large  villages  are  scattered  throughout  the  islands,  surrounded 
with  gardens,  patches  of  plantain  and  banana,  and  beautiful  with 
vines  and  flowers.  Like  the  Mexicans,  the  people  delight  in  guitar- 
playing,  dancing,  and  cock-fighting.  The  exports  from  the  islands 
are  cigars,  tobacco,  manila-hemp,  rice,  rattan,  beeswax,  yams,  beau- 
tiful woven  mats,  and  pina  muslins. 

The  Sandwich  Islands.  —  This  group,  in  the  midst  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  long  important  as  a  tradnig-centre  and  stopping-place 
for  whaling-vessels,  and  interesting  as  the  scene  of  successful 
missionary  labors,  has  greatly  increased  in  commercial  importance 
since  the  settlement  of  California  and  the  opening  of  the  Chinese 
ports.  The  coasts  often  rise  in  perpendicular  cliff's  more  than  a 
thousand  feet  high,  and  the  islands  contain  several  lofty  volcanic 
peaks,  among  which  is  Mount  Loa  with  a  crater  at  its  summit,  and 
another  immense  crater,  nine  miles  in  circumference,  on  its  slope, 
called  Kilauea.  Some  of  the  hills  are  covered  with  dense  forests, 
and  the  plains  below  with  sugar  and  coffee  plantations  and  broad 
pastures,  where  large  herds  are  kept  to  supply  meat  for  whalers  and 
merchant  vessels.  Honolulu,  the  chief  port,  in  a  central  position 
between  San  Francisco,  Hong  Kong,  and  Yedo,  carries  on  a  large, 
continually  increasing  trade.  Sugar,  coffee,  and  rice  find  a  ready 
market  in  California  and  British  Columbia.  American  missionaries 
have  resided  on  the  islands  nearly  fifty  years,  and  the  Hawaiian 
people  are  quite  well  taught.  They  have  schools  and  churches,  and 
the  king  has  encouraged  the  introduction  of  the  dress  and  habits  of 
civilized  nations.  They  manufacture  cloth  of  different  qualities  from 
the  bark  of  the  mulberry-tree,  and  mats  of  dyed  grasses. 

Of  the  numerous  other  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  some 
are  volcanic,  but  many  are  of  coral  formation,  covered  with  the 
most  beautiful  tropical  vegetation,  but  inhabited  for  the  most  part 
by  savages  of  the  Malay  race,  who  live  chiefly  upon  the  bread-fruit, 
and  supply  themselves  with  shelter,  implements,  oil,  and  wine  from 
the  prevailing  bamboo  and  cocoanut  palm.  They  arc  often  hostile  to 
the  whites,  and  it  is  not  always  safe  for  sailors  to  land  on  the  islands. 

Among  the  best  known  groups  are  the  Society,  Friendly,  Feejee, 
Marquesas,  and  Caroline  Islands.  (See  Maps  of  the  Hemispheres, 
pp.  30,  31.) 

Tahiti,  the  largest  of  the  Society  Islands,  has  been  long  visited 
by  merchant  vessels  and  missionaries,  and  the  islanders  have  aban- 
doned some  of  their  savage  customs.  They  exchange  cocoanuts, 
oil,  and  shells  for  cotton  cloth,  calico,  knives,  groceries,  etc. 

The  name  Oceanica  is  sometimes  used  as  including  the  East  Indies, 
also  called  Malaysia ;  Australia  and  its  surrounding  islands,  known 
as  Australasia ;  and  Polynesia,  or  the  numerous  groups  scattered  over 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  are  its  manufactures  ?  What  is  pi&a  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  jieople  ?  Where  are  the  Sandwich  Islands  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
surface?  Productions?  Position  and  trade  ?  People?  What  is  said  of  other  gioups 
of  islands  in  the  Pacific  ?     What  are  some  of  these  groups  t      What  is  said  of  Tahiti  ? 


MISCELLANEOUS  REVIEW. 


167 


GENERAL   REVIEW. 

Between  what  oceans  is  Australia  ?  What  sea  on  the  north  ?  Where  is  the  Great 
Barrier  Reef  ?  Where  is  Botany  Bay  ?  Wliat  are  the  mountain-ranges  of  Australia  ? 
The  rivers  ?  What  place  was  first  settled  by  the  English  ?  Where  are  convicts  sent 
now  ?  What  is  the  condition  of  the  natives  ?  What  strait  between  Papua  and  Aus- 
tralia ?  Tasmania  and  Australia  ?  What  is  the  port  of  West  Australia  ?  Where  is 
Sumatra  ?  Where  is  Papua  ?  What  large  islands  are  crossed  by  the  equator  ?  What 
island  southeast  of  Sumatra  ?  To  whom  does  it  belong  ?  What  is  the  capital  of  Java  ? 
Of  the  Philippines  ?  Where  are  the  Philippines  ?  To  whom  do  they  belong  ?  What 
is  cxiwrted  from  Manila  ?  From  Java  ?  Where  is  Celebes  ?  Singapore  ?  Where  are 
the  Moluccas  ?  What  are  the  general  productions  of  the  East  Indies  ?  What  is  the 
most  important  group  in  the  Pacific  ?  What  is  the  latitude  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  ? 
Where  are  the  Feejee  and  Society  Islands  ?  In  what  direction  is  New  Zealand  from  the 
Sandwich  Islands  ?  On  what  water  and  in  what  direction  must  one  sail  from  San 
Francisco  to  Honolulu  ?  From  Manila  to  San  Francisco  ?  From  Manila  to  New  York  ? 
From  Java  to  Amsterdam  ?  From  Ceylon  to  England  ?  Read  from  the  map  the  names 
of  some  of  the  small  groups  in  the  Pacific  ?    To  what  group  does  Tahiti  belong  ? 


SUMMARY. 

'  Australia,  the  smallest  of  the  grand  divisions,  bclong's  nominally 
to  the  English,  who  have  made  settlements  in  the  sontheastern  prov- 
inces of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South  Australia,  which 
are  watered  by  the  Murray  and  Darling,  the  only  Australian  rivers  of 
much  size.  The  resources  of  the  country  are  the  immense  stock- 
pastures,  where  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  raised,  and  the  gold- 
mines, the  richest  in  the  world  except  those  of  California.  Quite  a 
large  white  population  has  collected  within  a  few  years,  and  the  cities 


of  Sydney,  Melbourne,  and  Adelaide  are  large,  busy  trading-ports, 
exporting  wool,  hides,  gold,  etc. 

As  far  as  the  rest  of  this  continent  has  been  explored,  it  is  dry 
and  bare.  The  plants  and  animals  arc  most  of  them  peculiar  to  the 
country  ;  the  vegetation  is  not  remarkably  luxuriant,  and  the  largest 
animal  is  the  kangaroo. 

The  islands  around  Australia  are  Tasmania,  settled  by  the  English 
as  a  penal  colony ;  the  three  islands  of  New  Zealand,  where  there 
is  an  important  and  prosperous  British  colony ;  and  Papua,  the 
largest  of  the  islands,   but  as  yet  little  known. 

The  East  Indies  are  a  group  of  large  islands  southeast  of  Asia, 
remarkable  for  a  great  luxuriance  of  tropical  vegetation,  and  for 
numerous  animals,  birds,  and  insects.  The  English,  Dutch,  and 
other  European  nations  have  valuable  colonies  on  many  of  the 
islands,  and  along  their  shores  are  thriving,  well-built  European 
ports,  with  villas  and  gardens  amid  the  tropical  vegetation  and  the 
bamboo-houses  of  the  dark-skinned  natives.  The  exports  from  the 
islands  are  rice,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  spices,  gums,  dye-woods,  etc. 

Batavia,  on  the  island  of  Java,  belongs  to  the  Dutch  ;  Manila, 
on  the  Philippines,  to  Spain  ;  and  the  island  of  Singapore  to  the 
English. 

Scattered  throughout  the  Pacific  are  numerous  groups  of  islands, 
some  volcanic,  but  many  of  them  alolls,  or  coral  islands,  covered 
with  palms,  bread-fruit,  bananas,  etc.,  and  inhabited  by  savage  native 
tribes. 

The  Sandwich  Islands  have  an  important  position  for  trade,  and  the 
people  have  become  partly  civilized. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EEYIEW. 


LESSON  I. 

What  is  the  proportion  of  land  and  water  on  the  earth's  surface  ?  What  divisions 
of  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere  ?  In  the  southern  ?  What  are  the  zones  ?  What 
causes  the  differences  of  temperature  over  the  earth's  surface  ?  What  countries  lie  in 
the  torrid  zone  ?  In  the  north  temperate  ?  South  temperate  ?  North  frigid  ?  What 
are  the  principal  islands  of  the  torrid  zone  ?  Of  the  temperate  zone  ?  Why  is  Nonvay 
warmer  than  Greenland  ?  What  is  the  general  climate  of  the  eastern  Atlantic  coast  as 
compared  with  the  same  latitude  on  the  western  or  American  coast  ?  What  is  the 
character  of  the  climate  and  productions  along  the  Pacific  shores  of  the  United  States  ? 
What  is  the  character  of  the  climate  and  productions  of  the  Mediterranean  shores  ? 
Of  the  States  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  Of  South  Africa  ?  Of  the  Amazon 
region  ?  In  what  countries  is  the  bamboo  in  common  use  ?  Where  are  the  palms  most 
useful,  and  what  are  the  different  species  ?  What  takes  the  place  of  the  palm  or  bam- 
boo in  Mexico  ?  Where  do  pine-forests  prevail  ?  Heaths  ?  Acacias  ?  Bread-fruit 
and  bananas  ?  In  what  countries  is  rice  cultivated  for  the  common  food  of  the  peo- 
ple ?  Where  are  some  of  the  greatest  wheat  or  grain  regions  ?  What  are  the  tea- 
countries  ?  What  countries  are  esiiecially  noted  for  coffee  ?  Cacao  ?  Sugar-cane  ? 
Spices  ?  What  are  the  wine-countries  ?  Where  is  indigo  most  largely  cultivated  ? 
What  are  some  of  the  other  common  dyes  ?  What  are  the  great  cotton-countries  ? 
Where  is  flax  cultivated  and  manufactured  ?  Silk  ?  What  parts  of  the  world  are 
famous  for  wool  ?  For  woollen  manufactures  ?  What  are  some  of  the  different 
kinds  of  wool  ?  From  what  three  countries  in  the  southern  hemisphere  are  large 
cargoes  of  wool  and  hides  shipped  ?  Where  are  the  extensive  grass-plains  or  grazing 
regions  ?  Where  are  the  most  celebrated  mining  regions  ?  What  kind  of  woods 
are  used  for  building  or  cabinet-work,  and  where  are  they  found  ?  Where  is  the 
caoutchouc-tree  Totind  ?  What  are  the  various  oils  in  common  use,  and  from  what 
are  they  obtained?  What  is  cinnamon?  Tapioca?  Sago?  Ginger?  Camphor? 
What  are  cloves  ?  Nutmegs  ?  What  islands  are  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  cigars 
and  tobacco  ?  What  are  the  principal  fur-bearing  animals  ?  What  animals  are  used  as 
beasts  of  burden  ?  What  skins  are  tanned  for  leather  ?  Where  are  the  largest  animals 
found  ?  Where  is  the  tiger  found  ?  The  reindeer  ?  The  kangaroo  ?  The  giraffe  ? 
Crocodiles  ?  Alligators  ?  Where  are  i)arrots  and  monkeys  found  ?  Apes  and 
gorillas  ?     Where  are  camels  used  ?     Lamas  ?     What  are  locusts  ?     What  are  termites  ? 


Where  is  the  cochineal  insect  found  ?  Wlierc  are  hyenas  found  ?  Where  docs  the 
beaver  make  his  home?  The  hipjiopotamus?  What  are  the  largest  birds,  and  where 
foun<l  ?  The  smallest  birds  ?  Mocking-birds  ?  Nightingales  ?  What  and  where 
are  the  most  important  fisheries  ?  How  are  sponges  obtained  ?  Corals  ?  What  is 
coral  ?  What  are  coral  islands  and  reefs  ?  Where  are  the  principal  volcanoes  ?  What 
are  geysers,  and  where  found  ?  What  are  mineral  springs  ?  In  what  ways  is  salt  ob- 
tained ?  What  is  naphtha  ?  Petroleum  ?  Natron  ?  Lava  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  ?  In  what  parts  of  the  United  States  is  coal 
most  abundant  ?  What  is  peat  ?  Where  are  the  most  celebrated  tin-mines  ?  What  is 
steel  ?  What  is  brass  ?  What  is  bronze  ?  What  is  an  ore  ?  Of  what  is  china  or 
porcelain  made  ?    What  is  manufactured  from  hemp  ?    What  are  pearls  ? 

LESSON  IL 

What  two  races  of  nomads  or  wandering  tribes  are  there,  and  what  region  do  they 
inhabit  ?  What  people  have  oblique  eyes  ?  AVhat  nations  wear  beards  and  turbans  ? 
In  what  countries  does  the  Buddhist  religion  prevail  ?  What  is  the  religion  of  India? 
Which  are  the  Mohanmiedan  countries  ?  Which  of  these  countries  are  not  included  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire  ?  What  is  the  sacred  book  of  the  Mohanmiedans  ?  What  does 
their  religion  teach  ?  What  is  a  mosque  ?  A  Lama  ?  A  Brahmin  ?  A  pariah  ?  A 
pasha  ?  A  mandarin  ?  A  coolie  ?  A  wigwam  ?  A  tomahawk  ?  A  lasso  ?  A  Hotten- 
tot ?  What  are  some  of  the  Mohammedan  customs  ?  The  Chinese  customs  ?  What 
is  a  harem  ?  What  are  the  social  castes  in  Hindostan  ?  To  whom  does  Hindostan  be- 
long ?  What  does  British  India  include  ?  To  whom  does  Farther  India  belong  ?  Java  ? 
The  Philippine  Islands  ?  Siberia  ?  Cape  Colony  ?  By  whom  was  Cape  Town  first 
settled  ?  Who  were  the  first  Russian  inhabitants  of  Siberia  ?  What  were  the  important 
countries  in  ancient  times  ?  What  is  ujeant  by  the  Middle  Ages  ?  What  European 
nations  grew  up  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ?  Who  were  the  Moors  ?  What 
nations  were  famous  as  navigators  and  discoverers  ?  What  led  to  the  discovery  of 
America  ?  Who  were  the  first  explorers  of  the  Western  Continent  ?  What  part  was 
settled  by  Spaniards  ?  What  part  by  the  French  ?  Where  were  the  first  English  set- 
tlements ?  Who  were  the  natives  of  America  ?  What  was  their  condition  ?  How  did 
the  people  of  the  inland  plateaus  of  Mexico  and  Peru  differ  from  the  other  natives  ? 
By  whom  was  Brazil  settled  ?    What  became  of  the  English  colonies  in  America  ?    The 


1G8 


OUR  WORLD. 


Spanish  colonies  ?  What  part  of  America  is  now  in  possession  of  the  English  ?  What 
ai-c  the  United  States,  and  what  portion  of  the  continent  do  they  occupy  ?  What  part 
of  British  America  is  most  populous  ?  What  are  the  provinces  and  islands  along  the 
St.  Lawrence  I  Who  are  the  Mexicans  ?  What  is  the  government  of  lirazil  ?  What 
kind  of  People  are  the  Patagonians  ?  Who  are  the  Es(juimaux  ?  The  Laplanders  ? 
What  people  inhabit  the  northern  half  of  Africa  ?  The  soutliern  half  ?  What  is  the 
condition  of  the  Negro  tribes  (  What  kind  of  houses  have  they  ?  What  manufac- 
tures ?  What  foreign  colonies  are  there  in  Al'ri(-a  ?  What  is  the  limit  of  the  caravan- 
trade  in  Africa  ?  By  whom  is  it  carried  on  ?  What  kind  of  trade  do  the  Negro  tribes 
carry  on 'with  the  coast  towns  ?  What  part  of  Australia  has  been  settled,  and  by 
■whom  ?  What  is  the  condition  of  the  rest  of  the  continent  ?  Where  was  the  firet 
Australian  colony  ?  What  are  some  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  world  ?  What  groups 
form  important  countries  or  em|iires  ?  What  are  the  remarkable  volcanic  islands  '<  On 
what  island  is  the  town  ol  Manila  ?  Batavia?  Hobart's  Town  ?  St.  John's  ?  What 
and  where  are  some  of  the  largest  lakes  ?  Some  of  the  longest  rivera  ?  What  rivers 
flow  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  Into  the  Pacific  ?  Into  the  Mississippi  f  Which  grand 
division  has  the  largest  rivera  and  lakes  ?  Which  the  most  numerwis  large  cities  ? 
What  are  the  longest  mountain-chains  ?  Where  are  some  of  the  highest  peaks  ?  The 
principal  volcanoes  ?    What  are  the  mountain-systems  of  North  America  ?    Of  Asia  ? 

LESSON  III. 

What  are  the  principal  cities  of  Australia  ?  What  are  the  chief  commercial  ports  of 
the  Indies  ?  Of  China  ?  Of  Japan  ?  What  is  the  trading-route  from  China  through 
Siberia  ?  Through  Middle  Asia  to  Europe  ?  To  whom  does  Hong  Kong  belong  ?  What 
is  the  great  trading-centre  in  Kussia  ?  Where  do  the  British  steamei-s  stop  in  India  ? 
What  is  the  chief  port  of  Soutli  Africa  ?  Why  are  there  no  large  cities  along  the  coast 
of  Africa  ?  What  is  exjiorted  from  the  west  coast  ?  From  Cajx;  Town  ?  From  Mel- 
bourne ?  From  Bombay  and  Calcutta  ?  From  Batavia  ?  Manila  ?  Hong  Kong  ? 
Yokohama  ?  From  Siberia  ?  What  are  the  exports  from  the  Mediterranean  shoies  ? 
Where  is  Smyrna  ?  Beyrout  ?  Port  Said  ?  Alexandria  ?  Algiers  ?  Trieste  ?  Paler- 
mo ?     Naples  ?      Genoa  ?     Mai-seilles  ?     Malaga  ?     Where  do  currants  come  from  ? 


Where  is  cork  found  ?  What  are  the  chief  European  ports  on  the  .\tlantic  ?  To  whom 
does  Gibraltar  belong  ?  What  is  exported  from  Bordeaux  ?  Amsterdam  ?  What 
are  some  of  the  important  cities  of  Belgium  ?  Of  France  'I  Of  Germany  ?  Of  Kussia  ? 
Where  is  Berlin  situated  ?  St.  Petersburg  ?  Astrachan  ?  Vienna  ?  Nuremberg  ? 
Madrid  ?  Stockholm  ?  Calais  and  Dover  ?  Dublin  ?  Belfast  ?  What  is  the  chief 
commercial  city  of  Scotland  ?  For  what  is  Paisley  noted  ?  Where  is  Edinburgh  ? 
London  ?  What  great  port  of  England  takes  the  American  trade  ?  What  are  the  chief 
manufacturing  cities  of  England,  and  for  what  noted  ?  What  arc  the  chief  naval  sta- 
tions and  ports  on  its  south  shore  ?  What  are  the  downs  ?  Where  is  Aldemey  Island  ? 
Isle  of  Wight  ?  iladeira  ?  The  Azores  ?  Where  are  the  Sandwich  Islands  ?  What 
is  their  chief  port  ?  What  are  the  two  largest  cities  of  South  America,  and  where  sit- 
uated ?  What  are  the  ports  of  its  Pacific  coast  ?  What  countries  occupy  the  Andes 
region  ?  How  are  the  principal  cities  of  this  region  situated  ?  What  are  the  Pampas  ? 
The  Selvas  ?  What  is  exj)0rted  from  Buenos  Ayres  ?  From  Rio  Janeiro  ?  From  the 
Pacific  ports  ?  What  is  the  chief  Mexican  port  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  On  the 
Pacific  ?  What  United  States  port  on  the  Pacific  ?  What  ones  on  the  Atlantic  ?  On 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  What  are  the  largest  inland  cities  ?  What  cities  on  the  river- 
couree  from  Pittsburg,  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississipjii  ? 
What  is  the  rail  road -route  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  ?  From  New  York  to  St. 
Augustine  ?  What  are  the  chief  ports  on  the  St.  Lawrence  ?  What  and  where  aie 
some  of  the  principal  manufacturing  cities  of  the  United  States  ?  What  are  the  chief 
exports?  Imports?  What  State  exports  tar  and  pitch  ?  What  is  brought  from  Mex- 
ico ?  From  what  seaports  is  (-otton  shipped  ?  Sugar  ?  Coffee  ?  Mahogany  ?  Hides  ? 
Gold  ?  Lumber  ?  Wool  ?  By  what  two  routes  can  vessels  .sail  from  England  to  India  ? 
By  what  three  routes  can  they  go  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  ?  What  is  the 
common  mode  of  transportation  in  Siberia  ?  In  North  Africa  ?  In  South  Africa  ?  In 
the  United  States  ?  In  the  mountain-region  of  the  Andes  ?  What  ports  could  a  vessel 
stop  at  when  going  from  Portland  to  Vera  Cruz  ?  Where  could  a  vessel  stop  for 
supplies  on  a  passage  from  San  Francisco  to  Canton  ?  Where  might  the  drift-weod 
eome  from  that  is  cast  ashore  on  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  why  ?  Which  is  the 
shorter  voyage,  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  or  from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  and 
why  ? 


13  Lou.  West 


ISOTHERMAL  LINfS 

ASM  TiUF. 


1[7    Lom^hide     417  KasC   firou    7  7  Washington 


iSo 


vio 


Hit)     Xontfitude    t!K>  Wesl    irom  .10  rrr«<-nwich       d)     Lontfitmle     .'W  Knst 


Hit 


lao 


150 


TABLES 


y 


Height  of  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal Mountains  of  the 
■world. 


Feet. 
29,000 

28,000 
26,800 
23,900 
22,300 
21,400 
21,300 
21,100 
21  000 
20,300 
20.000 
19,200 
18,200 
18,000 
18,000 
17,700 
17,300 
16,000 
1,5,700 
15,700 
l.-i.lOO 
15,000 
14,900 

14,800 
14,700 

14,400 

14,000 
13,700 
17,300 
13,500 

13,400 

12,000 

12.000 

11,200 

11,000 

11,000 

11,000 

10,700 

9,200 

9,000 

9,000 

9,000 

9,000 
8,500 
8,000 
7,.500 
7,200 
7,000 
7,000 
7,000 
6,900 

6,700 
6,700 
6,300 


Hima- 
►  laya 

Mt3. 


Andes. 


Africa. 

Andes. 

)    Aver. 
)  height. 

>    Mexico. 

Rocky 
Mts. 


Mt.  Everest,  or 
Guarisaiiker. 

Kunchinginga, 

Dhavalagiri, 

Aconcagua, 

Sahama, 

Chimborazo, 

Sorata, 

Illiinani, 

Chuquibamba, 

Arequi|)a, 

Kilimanjaro, 

Picaoho,      \ 

Cotopaxi,   ) 

Elbtirz  Alts  , 

Knenlun  Mts. 

Popocatapetl, 

Orizaba,  S 

Mt.  Brown,    I 

Mt.  Hooker,  j 

Mt.  Blanc,  (     . , 

Mt.  Rosa,   )    "^'P' 

Peak  on  New  Zealand. 

Mt.  St.  Elias,  Coast 
Range. 

Matterhorn,  Alps. 

Mt.  B'airweather,  Coast 
Range. 

Mt  Shasta,  Sierra  Ne- 
vada. 

Pike's  Peak,  Rocky  Mts. 

Jiingfrau,  Alps. 

Mt.  Loa,  Sandwich  Ids. 

Fremont's  Peak,  Rocky 
Mts. 

Schreckenhorn,  Alps. 

Peak  on  Tenerift'e. 

Peak  on  Sumatra. 

Mt.  Hood.        I  Cascade 

Mt.  Jefferiion,  (  Ifangc. 

Peak  in  Atlas  Mts. 

Chiriqui,  Central  Amer. 

Ml  Etna,  Sicily. 

Peak  in  Java. 

Mt.  Si'iai,  Arabia. 

Cape  Verde  Islands. 

Mt.  St.  Helen's,  Cascade 
Mts. 

Highest  Apennino. 

Mt.  Olympus,  Turkey. 

Mt.  Horeb,  Arabia. 

Scandinavian  Mts. 

Australian  Alps. 

Cuba  Range. 

Hayti  Range. 

Altai  Mts. 

Ciingnian's 


Peak, 
Mt.  Mitchel, 
Black  Mt. 
Mt.  Wash- 
ington, 


Appalach- 
ian 
Ranges. 


Questions.  —  Which  continent  hm 
the  highest  mountiin-range  ?  What  ifl 
the  hi];hest  peak  ?  What  range  ran)(8 
wcood  ?  \^at  \%  the  highest  peak  ? 
How  much  lower  than  Mt.  Kverest? 
What  two  ranges  rise  to  18,000  feet? 
What  Tolcanic  p<aik  ranks  next  ?  What 
peaks  of  the  Alps  iind  Kocky  Mnitntains 
arc  of  about  the  s.ainc  hei'jht  ?  Mention 
the  Iiighi'st  i)eaks  of  e.ich  ninjr*!.  What 
inlands  have  peaks  above  10,()00  feet? 
What  above  9,000  feet  ?    What  ranges 


6,000  Mt.  d'Or,  France. 

5,700  Mt  Jetterson,  /    White 

5,700  Mt.  Adams,     (      Mts. 

5,300  Mt.  Marcy,  Adirondacs. 

5,000  Mt.  Hecla,  Iceland. 

5,000  Mt.  Katalulin,  Me. 

4,500  Ben  Nevis,  Scotiaud. 

4,400  Mt.  Mansfield,  Vt. 

4,200  Jurullo,  Mexico. 

4,100  Mt.  Vesuvius,  Italv. 

4,000  Table  Mt.,  South  Africa. 

3,700  Mt.  Brocken,  Germany. 

3,.500  Mt.  Snowdon,  Wales. 

3,500  Peak  in  Ireland. 

?:-»-     Hart.  Mts.  [tl^hf 


The  longest  rivers  of  the 
•world. 


Miles. 
4,300 
3,900 
3,000 
2,900 
2,800 
2,800 
2,700 
2,700 
2,600 
2,600 
2,600 
2,500 
2,.300 
2,200 
2,100 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
1,900 
1,800 
1,800 
1,800 
1,700 
1,700 
1,700 
1,600 
1,500 
1,.500 
1,500 
1,200 
1,100 
1,100 
1,100 
1,080 
1,050 
1,000 
950 
900 
900 

80O 
to 
700 


Name. 
Missouri  and  Mississippi 
Amazon. 
Nile. 
Yenisei. 
Mis^issippi. 
Yang-tse-Kiang. 
Hoang-llo. 
Lena. 
Obi. 
Niger. 
Ainoor. 
La  I'lata. 
Volga. 

St.  Lawrence. 
Arkansas. 
Zambesi. 
Mackenzie. 
Red. 
DanulH). 
Rio  Grande. 
Ganges. 
Indus. 
Cambodia. 
Irawaddy. 
Saskatchewan. 
Eui)hrates. 
OriiUKo. 
Murray. 
Columbia. 
Brahmapootra. 
Orange. 
Colorado. 
Tocuntins. 
Don. 
Dnieiwr. 
Yellowstone. 
Ohio. 
Kansas. 
Magdalena. 
Rhine. 
Platte. 
Tennessee. 
Meiuam. 


rise  to  7,000  feet  ?  What  is  the  highest 
point  of  land  east  of  the  Mississipjii ' 
How  much  higher  than  Mt.  Wa.shiiig- 
ton  ?  Which  are  the  higher,  the  peaks  of 
the  Appalm'hiiin  range  or  the  peaks  of 
Great  Kritain  T  In  what  grand  divisions 
are  the  four  longest  rivers  ?  What  are 
they  ?  Wiiat  rivers  are  of  ai)out  the 
same  lengtli  as  the  St.  lAwnsnce  ?  As 
the  Ganges  »  The  Rhine  ?  The  Ithone  ? 
The  Su^<iuehanna?  The  Connecticut  ? 
The  Hudson  ? 


700 

[Elbe. 

to 

[  Dvina. 

600 

'  Gambia. 

600 

J>oire. 
Rhone. 

500 

Vistula. 
Brazos. 

[  Susduehanna. 

500 

Roanoke. 

Potomac. 

to  j 

Savannah. 

James. 

400 

Wabash. 

Tagus. 

Po. 

400 

Connecticut 

Seine. 

to  \ 

I ) uero. 

Oder. 

300 

Gnadalquiver 

Delaware. 

350 

Hudson. 

350 

Cape  Fear. 

350 

Penobscot. 

Kennebec. 

300 

Sacramento. 

to 

Thames. 

200 

Severn. 

^  Shannon. 

ARBAS. 

[The  areas  of  the  Grand  Divisions  are 
given  in  the  text. J 

Some  of  the  largest  islands. 


Sq.  miles. 

300,000 

260,000 

220,000 

155,000 

100,000 

92,000 

90,000 

70,000 

51,000 

47,000 

41,000 

40,000 

40,000 

36,000 

32,000 

30,000 

28,000 

25,700 

25,000 

10,.500 

9,0(X) 

0,200 


Name. 
Bonteo. 
Papua. 
Madagascar. 
Sumatra. 
New  Zealand. 
Niphon. 
Great  Britain 
Celebes. 
Java. 
Saghalien. 
Luzon. 

Newfoundland. 
Iceland. 
Cuba. 
Ireland. 
Ycso. 
Tasmania. 
Ceylon. 
Hayti. 
Sicily. 
Sardinia. 
Jamaica. 


Some  of  the  largest  lakes. 

Sq.  miles.  Name. 

170,000  Caspian  Sea. 

32,000  Lake  Superior. 

23,000  Lake  Michigan. 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  largest 
island  in  the  world  ?  How  niiiny  times 
larger  than  Great  Britain  ?  Than  IJuba! 
How  do  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Ijtke  Su- 
perior compare  in  size?  Wh-'tt  islands 
are  nearly  the  same  .size  as  Ni-wfoumi- 
land?  What  iland  is  nearly  the  sjuue 
siwi  as  Ore-at  Britain  ?  Which  two  great 
lakes  are  nearly  the  same  size  ? 


21.000 

Huron. 

14,000 

Tchad. 

13,000 

Baikal. 

Victoria  Nyanza.    )   Very  large. 

Albert  Nj 

anza.       >  but  undcter- 

Tanganyi 

ka.           )       mined. 

8,000 

Erie. 

6,500 

Ontario. 

6,500 

Ladoga. 

5,100 

Nicaragua. 

3,200 

Titicaca. 

2,000 

Great  Salt. 

1,000 

Wenner. 

700 

Wetter. 

180 

Constance. 

61 

i;omo. 

57 

Vlaggiore. 

Areas 

of  the  principal 

countries. 

Sq.  miles. 

Name. 

6,018,000 

Russia  in  Asia. 

2,050,000 

Russia  in  Europe. 

4,695,000 

Chinese  Emjiire. 

3,630,(X)0 

British  America. 

3,515  000 

United  States. 

3,100,000 

Brazil. 

1,553,000 

India. 

826  820 

Argentine  Republic. 

773,140 

Mexico. 

752,000 

Farther  India. 

672,000 

Turkey  in  Asia. 

640,400 

Turkestan. 

541,100 

Persia. 

535,760 

Bolivia. 

510,160 

I'eru. 

481,270 

Alaska. 

368,2.30 

Venezuela. 

3.57,170 

U.  S.  of  Columbia. 

308,500 

New  South  Wales. 

274,.50O 

Papua. 

274,3.50 

Texas. 

25y,.500 

Morocco. 

240,350 

Austria. 

221,900 

Ecuador. 

209,000 

France. 

195,000 

Spain. 

1 92,830 

Cajie  Colony. 

191,870 

Central  America. 

188,900 

California. 

170,617 

Sweden. 

143,776 

Montana. 

135,900 

I'russia. 

135,200 

Chid. 

128,290 

N<jrway. 

126,300 

Paraguay. 

126,141 

A  rizona. 

181,000 

New  Mexico. 

109,000 

Italy. 

95,200 

Oregon. 

9O,.300 

Idalio. 

81,318 

ivansas 

81, .520 

Nevada. 

76,000 

British  Guiana. 

75,995 

Nebraska. 

69,990 

Washington. 

Questions-  —  what    is    the  largest 

area  under 

one  government?     What  is 

tile  lar<j!St  country  of  North  America? 

Of  .South  America  ?     Wliic-h  of  the  Unit- 

ed StatA.'S  is 

about  the  siie  of  BeMum  ? 

Of  Uruguay 

? 

66,790    Urngnay. 
65,350     Missouri. 


59,268 
58,000 
56,451 
55,410 
55,045 
53,920 
52.198 
50.922 
50,722 
50,700 
47,1.50 
47,000 
46,000 
45,600 
41,346 
40,200 


Florida. 

Georgia. 

Michigan. 

Illinois. 

lowiu 

Wisconsin. 

Arkansas. 

Englan<l. 

Alabama. 

North  Cai'olina. 

Mississippi. 

New  Y<irk. 

Pennsylvania. 

Tennessee. 

Louisiana. 

Newfoundland. 


39,900 

Ohio. 

38,350 

Virginia. 

37,680 

Kentucky. 

35,000 

Maine. 

34,000 

South  Carolina. 

33,800 

Indiana. 

32,513 

Ireland. 

31, .320 

Seollund. 

31,100 

Yeso. 

19,3.50 

Gi-eecc. 

18,000 

Nova  Scotia. 

15,700 

Switzerland. 

1 5,200  •Dennutrk. 

13,670 

Holland. 

11.1,50 

Belgium. 

11,120 

JIaryland. 

10,212 

Vermont. 

9,280 

New  Hampshire. 

8,320 

New  Jersey. 

7,800 

Massachusetts. 

6,400 

Jamaiciu 

5,990 

Saxony. 

4,7.50 

Connecticut 

2,120 

Delaware. 

1,.!60 

Rhode  Island. 

1,140 

Azore  Islands. 

Population  of  the  principal 

cities  of  the  world. 

3,800,000 

London. 

1,825.270 

Paris. 

1,500,000 

Peking. 

1 ,200,000 

Canton. 

1,0<  (0,000 

Constantinople. 

942  292 

New  York. 

816,560 

Bombay. 

702,000 

Beriin. 

674,269 

Yedo. 

674,022 

I'hiladelpliia. 

578,.500 

Vienna. 

539,120 

St.  Petersburg. 

493,340 

Liverpool. 

477,144 

(ilasgow. 

475,785 

Madrid. 

450,000 

Rio  Janeiro. 

Questions-  —  What    are    the    six 

largest  rountri<?s  of  tlie  world  ?     What 

countries  art 

about  the  size  of  Mexico? 

What  island 

is  about  tile  .size  of  Texas  ? 

What  countries  are  about   the  size  of 

California? 

What    country   of   South 

Anie^i  is 
WhaRtates 

nbout  the  size  of  I'russia? 

ire  nea  ly  the  sizt!  of  Eng- 

land  ?      Of 

reland  ?     What    island    is 

nearly  as  large  as  Massachusetts  ?    What 

one  is  about  the  size  of  Ohio  ? 

172 


OUR  WORLD. 


Population  of  the  principal 
cities.  —  Continued. 


447,650 
427,770 
427,395 
400.000 
396,099 
396,090 
377,920 
374,525 
355,660 
351,627 
343,690 
323,950 
310,864 
300,100 
300,000 
298,977 
287,240 
275,280 
274,931 
267,354 
259,200 
256,700 
252,000 
250,.526 
245,720 
242,457 
239,937 
226,160 
216,2.19 
210,000 
204,000 
200,000 
196,.500 
194,460 
194,240 
191,418 
189,140 
182, .500 
180,860 
174,.390 
173,300 
171,926 
170,680 
164,000 
160,000 
160,000 
156,.500 
152,000 
150,000 
150,000 


Na])les. 

Madras. 

Osaka. 

Bangkok. 

Brooklyn. 

Slianghai. 

Calcutta. 

Yokohama. 

Manchester  (Eng.). 

Moscow. 

Birmingham. 

Lyons. 

St.  Lonis. 

Marseilles. 

Lnckiiow. 

(Chicago. 

Brussels. 

Lisbon. 

Amsterdam. 

Baltimore. 

Leeds. 

Cairo. 

Barcelona. 

Boston. 

Dublin. 

Milan. 

Sheffield. 

Kome. 

Cincinnati. 

Mexico. 

Turin. 

Havana. 

Eilinburgh. 

Palermo. 

Bortleaux. 

New  Orle.ms. 

Hamburg. 

Bristol  (Eng.). 

Co|)enhagen. 

Belfast  (Ireland). 

Benares. 

Breslau. 

Munich. 

Alexandria. 

Bokhara. 

Manila. 

Dresden. 

Seville. 

Damascus. 

Delhi. 


Questions.  —  What  is  the  morit  pop. 
nious  city  of  the  world  ?  How  many 
times  the  popuLation  of  New  York  ? 
What  is  the  second  city  in  population  ? 
What  are  the  six  most  populous  cities  of 


150,000 

150,000 

149,473 

145,827 

145,000 

142,000 

134,650 

127,980 

12.5,170 

125,000 

123,000 

122,942 

121,027 

121,360 

120,000 

120,000 

118,900 

118,900 

117,714 

116,600 

115,370 

115,120 

114,;J60 

113,600 

109,199 

105,059 

103,324 

102,500 

101,699 

100,75:3 

100,000 

96,471 

92,829 

92,021 

90,824 

90,320 

89,600 

89,31 1 

86,076 

80,700 

80,000 

79,577 

78,300 

77,800 

77,400 

76,372 

75,900 

75,700 

75,000 

74,945 

71,900 

71,440 

70,000 

69,422 

68,904 


Tunis. 

Smyrna. 

San  Francisco. 

Bradford  (Eng.). 

Valencia. 

Prague. 

Stockholm. 

Genoa. 

Cologne. 

Bahia. 

Antwerp. 

Venice. 

Rotterdam. 

Lima. 

Buenos  Ayres. 

Batavia. 

Odessa. 

Dundee. 

Burtalo 

Ghent. 

Santiago. 

Hong  Kong. 

Florence. 

Malaga. 

Washington. 

Newark. 

Messina. 

Rouen. 

Liege. 

Louisville. 

Yarkand. 

Leghorn. 

Cleveland. 

The  Hague. 

Leipsic. 

Montreal. 

Oporto. 

Dantzic. 

Pittsburg. 

Singapore. 

Morocco. 

Detroit. 

Cork. 

Nuremberg. 

Riga. 

La  Paz. 

Sydney. 

Stnttgard. 

Valparaiso. 

Bremen. 

Cadiz. 

Milwaukee 

Stettin. 

Albany. 

Providence. 


the  world  ?  What  cities  have  nearly  as 
large  a  population  as  NVw  Yorit?  As 
PbUadelpliia  ?  As  Liverpool  ?  As  Calcut- 


68,178 
65,000 
62.386 
62,000 
61,000 
60,500 
60,000 
55,798 
54,000 
53,180 
51,038 
50,840 
,50,000 
50,000 
48,955 
48,244 
47,200 
46,465 
46,000 
46,000 
45,000 
44,821 
41,000 
40,600 
36,000 
30,000 
22,300 
20,000 


Y.). 


Aix  la  Chapelle. 

Caracas. 

Rochester  (N. 

("hristiania. 

Havre. 

Rangoon. 

Quito. 

Melbourne. 

I'iidua. 

Quetec. 

Richmond. 

New  Haven. 

Lassa. 

Valladolid. 

Charleston  (S.  C). 

Indianapolis. 

Bruges. 

Troy. 

Athens. 

Bogota. 

Mecca. 

Toronto. 

Geneva. 

Leyden. 

Matanzas. 

Berne. 

Guayaquil. 

Callao. 


Largest  cities  of  the  United 
States. 


942,292 

674,022 

396,099 

310,864 

298,977 

267,3.54 

2.50,.526 

216,239 

191,418 

149,473 

117,714 

109,199 

105,059 

100,7.53 

92,829 

86  076 

82,546 

79,577 

71,440 

69,422 

68,904 

62,386 


New  York. 

Philadelphia. 

Brooklyn. 

St.  Louis. 

Chicago. 

Baltimore. 

Boston. 

Cincinnati. 

New  Orleans. 

San  Francisco. 

Buffalo.'^ 

Washington. 

Newark. 

Louisville. 

Cleveland. 

Pittsburg. 

Jersey  City 

Detroit. 

Milwaukee. 

Albany. 

Providence. 

Rochester. 


ta  ?  As  Chicago  ?  As  Boston  ?  As  Edin 
burgh  ?  As  San  Francisco  ?  As  Quebec  ' 
As  Geneva  ?    What  cities  of  the  United 


53,180 
51,038 
50,840 
48,9.50 
48,244 
46,465 


Alleghany  City. 

Richmond. 

New  Haven. 

Charleston. 

Indianapolis. 

Troy. 


Cities  of  less  than  45,000. 


43,051 
28,804 
20,080 
20,900 
17,225 
17,014 
15,863 
15,350 
12,426 


IN    NEW    YOEK. 

Syracuse. 

Utica. 

Foughkccpsie. 

Oswego. 

Auburn. 

Newburgh. 

Elmira. 

Cohoes. 

Lockport. 


IN   MASSACHUSETTS. 


41,105 
40,928 
39,634 
28,921 
28,236 
26,766 
26,703 
24,100 
21,320 
18,629 


Worcester. 

Lowell. 

Cambridge. 

Lawrence. 

Lynn. 

F'all  River. 

Springfield. 

Salem. 

New  Bedford. 

Taunton. 


IN    PENN.    AND    NEW    JERSEY. 


35,092 
33,9.30 
33,579 
23,100 
22,800 
20,832 
20,040 
19,500 


Scran  ton,  Pa. 
Reading,  Pa. 
Patterson,  N.  J. 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 
Trenton,  N.  J 
EIi,sabeth,  N.  J. 
<  aniden,  N.  J. 
Erie,  Pa. 


IN   OHIO   AND   INDIANA. 


31  ,,580 
31,274 
30,473 
21,800 
17,700 
16,100 
15,396 


Toledo,  O. 
Columbus,  O. 
Dayton,  O. 
Evansville,  Ind. 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 
Terre  Haute,  Ind. 
New  Albany,  Ind. 


States  have  over  500,000  inhabitants  ' 
What  have  Ijctwecn  200,000  and  40<1,000' 
What    between   100,000  and   200,000' 


IN    OTHER   STATES. 

40,226  Memphis,  Tenn. 

38,800  Wilmington,  Del. 

37,180  Hartford,  Ct. 

32,260  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

32,034  Mobile,  Ala. 

31,413  Portland,  Me. 

28,235  Savannah,  Ga. 

25,860  Nashville,  Tenn. 

24,500  Covington,  Ky. 

24,052  Quincv,  111. 

23,.536  Manchester,  N.  H. 

22,800  Peoria,  111. 

21,789  Atlanta,  Ga. 

20,038  Davenport,  lo. 

20,030  St.  Paul,  Min.  t 

19,550  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

19,280  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 

19,000  Noriolk,  Va. 

18,8.30  Bridgeport,  Ct. 

18,950  Petersburg,  Va. 

18,434  Dubuque,  lo. 

18,200  Bangor,  Me. 

17,300  Springfield,  111. 

16,880  Omaha,  Neb. 

16,6.50  Norwich,  Ct. 

16,.50O  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

16,283  Sacramento,  Cal. 

15,543  Nashua,  N.  H. 

15,380  Augusta,  Ga. 

14,800  Lexington,  Ky. 

14,380  Buriington,  Vt. 

13,810  Galveston,  Tex. 

13,000  Lcwiston,  Me. 

13,066  Minneapolis,  Min. 

12,800  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

12,700  Keokuk,  lo. 

12,521  Newport,  R.  I. 

12,443  Vicksburg,  Miss. 

12,2.50  San  Antonio,  Tex. 

12,241  Concord,  N.  H. 

11,527  Woonsocket,  R.  I. 

11,447  Jackson,  Mich. 

10,800  Macon,  Ga. 

10,500  Montgomery,  Ala. 

10,450  Wanvick,  R.  I. 

10,282  Biddcford,  Me. 

10,066  Stockton,  Cal. 

9,200  Columbia,  S.  0. 

6,900  Jacksonville,  Fa. 

6,093  Chattanooga,  Tenn. 

4,765  Santa  Fe,  X.  M. 

1,717  St.  Augustine,  Fa. 

1,203  Olympia,  Wn. 

What  two  States  have  the  most  large 
cities?  What  cities  have  about  30,000 
inhabitants. 


PROSOnsCING   VOCABUT,ARY. 

(WHICH  MAY  ALSO  FURNISH   QUESTIONS   FOR  A  MISCELLANEOUS  REVIEW.) 

'PuK  o>fhosrraphv  of.  many  names  is  still  unsettled,  —  writers  of  equal  authority  differing  in  regard  to  their  proper  spelling.    In  the  following  lists  the  form  in  most  gencml 

^ise  has  Iweii  adopted,  and  it  has  not  been  thought  neces,~ary  to  give  the  other  forms. 

The  names  of  cities  are  often  compounded  of  local  teims  and  of  the  word  signifying  city  or  town  in  the  different  languages,  — 

burg,  (German,)  Magdeburg. 

stadt,  (German,)  Carlstadt. 

borough,  (English,)  Scarborough  or  boro'. 

pore  or  poor,  (Hindoo,)  Nagpoor. 

city- 

polls,  (Greek,)  Adrianople.                                                                       towni 

ton  or  town,  (English,)  Charlestor 

. 

abad,  (Hindoo,)  Hyderabad. 

ham,  home,  (English.)  Framingham  (home  of  the  stranger).                  | 

ville,  (French,)  Louisville. 

wich,  village,  (English,)  Sandwich 

Many  places  in  England  with  the  termination  moutli  grew  up  at  the  mouths  of  little  rivers,  as  Dartmouth,  mouth  of  the  Dart ;  Tynemouth, 
etc.,  were  similarly  applied.     Such  names  as  Lancaster,  which  end  in  the  Roman  word  easier,  a  camp,  were  given  when  the  Roman  legions  w 

etc.     The  terminations  ford,  port. 

ere  stationed  in  England.     Many 

names  in  the  United  States  were  hrought  from  England.     Others  are  the  old  Indian  names,  as  Chattahoochee,  Mississippi. 

(The  situation  of  places  not  mentioned  in  the  text  is  indicated  ) 

A. 

Andalusia,  (Spain,)  an-dah-luz'- 

B. 

Blenheim,  blen-hime'. 

Calais,  (France,)  kal'lay. 

yah. 

Blois,  (France,)  biwah. 

Cal-cut'ta. 

Aar,  ahr 

Androscoggin,  an-dros^;og'ghin. 

Bab-el-man'deb,  ("  The  gate  of 

Bo'ers. 

Caliph,  kay'lif 

Abeoktita,  ahb-e-o-koo'tah. 

Angara,  ahn-gahrah 

tears.") 

Bogota,  bo-go-tah'. 

Callao,  kal'ya-o. 
Cam-bay'  (India). 

Aberdeen,  ab-ernleen'. 

Anglesea,  ang'gl-sy. 

Bab'y-lon. 

Bo-he'mi-a. 

Al)omey,  abo-ma^'. 
Abyssinia,  ab  is-sm'eah 

Angora,  an-go'rah. 

Bac'trian. 

Boise,  bwahzay. 

Cam-bo 'di  a. 

Angouleme,   (France,)    ang-gou- 

Badajos,  (Spain,)  bah-dah'hos. 

Bokhara,  bok-har'rah. 

Cam'bri-an. 

Acacia,  ah-kas'she-ah 

lem'. 

Baden,  bah'den. 

Bo-liv'ia 

Cam-er-oon'. 

Acadia,  ak-kab'diah. 

An-napo-lis. 

Baffin. 

Bologna,  (Italy,)  bo-lone'yah. 

Campagna,  kahm-pahn'yah. 

Acapulco,  ak-ah-pool'ko 
Aconcagua,  ak-onkah'gwah. 

Ant-arc'tic 

Bag'dad. 

Bo'lor. 

Campanile,  kahm-pah-nee'ley. 

Antigua,  (W.  I.,)  an-teegwah. 

Ba-ha'mas. 

Bom-bay',  ("Good  bay.") 

Campbell,  kara'el. 

Acre,  ay'ker. 

Ant'werp 

Bahia,  bah-ee'ah. 

Bordeaux,  bor-do'. 

Cam-pe'che. 

Acropolis,  ak-krop'o-lis. 

Apache,  ahpah'chay. 

Baikal,  by'kahl. 

Bor'ne-o. 

Can'a-da. 

Aden,  ah'iieii 

A-|)a-lacH-i-co'la. 

Bal-a-rat'. 

Bosphorus,  bos'fo-rus. 

Canandaigua,   (N.   Y.,)   kan-an- 

Adije,  ad'ee-zher 

Ap'en-nine. 

Bal-brig'gan. 

Bos'ton. 

day'gwah. 

Adirondac,  ad-e-ron'dak. 

A-poI'lo. 

Balearic,  bal-e-ar'ik. 

Both'ni-a. 

Ca-na'ries. 

Ailobe,  ah-do'bay. 

A  ppalachian,  ap-pah-lay 'ke-an. 

Balizc,  bah-leez'. 

Boulevard,  bool-vahr'. 

Can'cer. 

Adrianople,  adre-an.o'pl. 

A(]ueduct,  ak'wc-dukt. 

Balkan,  bahl-kahn'. 

Boulogne,  (France,)  boo-lone'. 

Can'di-a. 

Adriatic,  ad-re-ai'ik. 

Ar'ab. 

Balkash,  bahl-kash'. 

Bourbon,  boor'bon. 

Canon,  kan'yon. 

JEgean,  ee-gec'an. 

A-ra'bi-a. 

Bal-mor'al  (Scotland). 

Braganza,  (Spain,)  brah-gahn'- 

Can-o'va. 

Afghanistan,         ahf-gan-is-tahn', 

Arafura,  ah-rah-foo'rah. 

Baltic,  bawl'tik. 

zah. 

Can-ta'bri-an. 

("  Land  of  the  Afghans.") 

Ar'al. 

Baltimore,  bawl'te-more. 

Brahma,  brah'mah. 

Can'ton  (U.  S.). 

Aga-ment'i-cus. 

Ar'a-rat. 

Bam-boo'. 

Brahmapootra,  brah-mah-poo'tra, 

Can-ton'  (China). 

Agave,  ah-gah'vay. 

Archangel,  ark-ain'jel. 

Bang-kok'. 

("  Son  of  Brahma.") 

Caoutchouc,  koo'tchook. 

Agiilhas,  ah-gool'ahs. 

Archipelago,  ar-kipel'a-go. 

Ban-yan'. 

Brazil,  brah-zeel'. 

Cape  Breton,    kape    bret'on    or 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  ayks-Ia-sha-pcl'. 

Ar-c-op'a-gus. 

Barbadocs,  bar-bay'doze. 

Brazos,  brah'zos. 

bre-ton'. 

Ajaccio,  (Corsica,)  ah-yaht'cho. 

Argentine,  ar-jen-teen'. 

Bar'ca. 

Bremen,  brem'en. 

Cap'ri-com. 

Alabama,  al-a-bah'mah. 

Arica,  ar-rec'kah. 

Barcelona,  bar-say-lo'nah. 

Breslau,  bres'law  or  -lo. 

Capuchin,  kap-u-shen'. 

Alameda,  al-ah-may'dah. 

Ar-i-zo'na. 

Basle,  bahl. 

Bris'tol. 

Caracas,  kah-rah'kas. 

A-las'ka. 

Ar-kan'sas. 

Bassora,  bas-so'rah. 

Britain,  brit'tn. 

Car'a-van. 

Albany,  awlTian-e. 

Aries,  arl. 

Ba-ta'vi-a. 

Brit'ta-ny. 

Car-cas-sonne'. 

Altem'arle,  al-l)er-marl'. 

Ar-ma-dil'lo. 

Bath'urst. 

Brock'en. 

Cardenas,  (Cuba,)  kar'day-nas. 

Albuqueriiue,    (Spain,)    al-boo- 

Ar-me'ni-a. 

Baton  Rouge,  bat'on  roozh'. 

Brook'lyn. 

Car-diff  (Wales). 

ker'kay. 

Arrieros,  ar-re-ay'ros. 

Bayonne,  bah-yon'. 

Bruges,  bru'jes. 

Ca-rib-be'an. 

Aldemcy,  awl'der-ny. 

Ar-te-mi'si-a. 

Bayou  la  Fourchc,  by'oo  la  foorsh. 

Brusa,  broo'sa. 

Carls'bad. 

Alenv'on,  (France,)  al-en-son'. 

Ar-tic'u-lates. 

Bazaar,  baz-zar'. 

Brus'sels. 

Carls-cro'na  (Sweden). 

A-lep'j)o. 

Aleutuin,  a-lew'shan. 

Ashantee,  ah-shan'tee. 

Beaufort,  bu'fort. 

Bucharcst,(Turkey,)  bu-kah-rest'. 

Carls'ruhe  (Germany). 

As'pin-wall. 

Bedouin,  bed'oo-in. 

Bu'da. 

Car'ni-val. 

Al-cx-an'dri-a. 

Assafoetida,  as-a-fet'i-dah. 

Beliring,  beer'ing. 

Buddha,  boo'dah. 

Car-o-li'na. 

Alga,  (pi.)  Algfe,  al'gah, al'gee. 

Astrachan,  as-trah-kan'. 

Bel'gi-um. 

Buenos  Ayres,  bway'nos eyeres, 

Ca-ron'de-let. 

Algiers,  al-jeers'. 

Asuncion,  as-soon '.see-on . 

Belleisle,  bel-ile',  ("Beautiful  isl- 

(" Good  air.") 

Cnr-pa'thi-an. 

Al-ham'bra. 

Atacama,  at-ah-cah'niah. 

and.") 

Bug,  (Russia,)  boog. 

Car-pen-ta'ria. 

Alicante,  (Spain,)  al-i-kahn'tay. 

Atchafalaya,     atch-ah-fah-ly'ah. 

Beloochistan,       bel-oo-chis-tahn', 

Bungalow,  boon'gah-lo. 

Carrara,  kar-rah'rah. 

Al'lah. 

("  Lost  water.") 

("  Land  of  the  Beloochees.") 

Bun'ker. 

Carrageen,  kar'rah-ghcon. 

Al'lc-gha-ny. 

Athabasca,   (B.  A.,)   ath-a-bas'- 

Benares,  ben-ah'rez. 

Bur'gun-dy. 

Cartagena,  kar-tah-hay'nah. 

Almaden,  (Spain,)  al-mah'den. 

kah. 

Bengal,  ben-gawl'. 

Bur'ra  Bur'ra. 

Cash'mere. 

Aloe,  al'o 

Ath'ens. 

Benguela,  bcn-gay'lah. 

Butte,  bute. 

Cas'pi-an. 

Alpaca,  al-pak'ah 

At-lan'ta. 

Ben  Ne'vis. 

Cassava,  kas-sah'vah. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  al-sahs-lor-rane'. 

Atoll,  ay'toU. 

Bergen,  ber'ghen. 

Cassiquiare,  kas-se-kc-ah'ray. 

Altai,  al-ti'. 

Augs'burg. 

Berlin,  ber-lin'  or  ber'lin. 

C. 

Castine,  (Me.,)  kas-tcen'. 

Altamaha,  al-ta-ma-haw'. 

Au-gus'ta. 

Bermudas,  ber-moo'daz. 

Catania,  kah-tay'nia. 

Alton,  awl'ton. 

Aurora  Borealb,  aw-ro'rah  bo- 

Beyrout,  bay'root. 

Caboul,  kah-bool'. 

Ca-taw'ba. 

Amtergris,  am'ber-grees. 

ree-ay'li». 

Biafra,  be-afrah. 

Cacao,  kah-kow'. 

Catoche,  kah-to'chay. 

Amerigo    Vespucci,    ah-mer'i-go 

Aus'tri-a. 

Biddeford,  bid'de-furd. 

Cachelot,  kash'lo. 

Cats'kill. 

ves-poo'che. 

Auvcrgne,  (France,)  o-vairn'. 

Binondo,  be-non'do. 

Cac'tus,  Cpl.)  Cac'ti. 

Cat'te-gat,  ("  Cat's  gate.") 

Amiens,  (France,)  am'e-enz. 

Au.\errc,  (France,)  o-sair'. 

Bir'mah. 

Cadi,  kay'di. 

Cauca,  (S.  America,)  kow'ka. 

Amoor,  ah-moor'. 

Avignon,  ah-veen-yong'. 

Bir'ming-ham 

Cadiz,  kay'diz. 

CjMtcasus,  kaw'ka-sus,  ("  White 

Amoy,  ali-moy'. 

Av'on. 

Biscachas,  bis-kah'chas. 

Caernarvon,(Wales,)  ker-nar'von. 

^Heuntain.") 

Amphitheatre,  am-fe-the'ay-ter. 

Az-o'res. 

Bis'cay. 

Caf-fra'ri-a.                                      4 

I^^rnne,  ky-en'. 

Anam,  ah-nahm'. 

A/'ov. 

Bison,  by'son. 

Cairo,  ki'ro.                              ^ 

^Enan,  (W.L,)  ky-man',  ("AUi- 

Anchovy,  antH:bo'vy. 

Ax'tees. 

Bi-tu'me'n. 

Calais,  (Me.,)  kal'is.                 ^ 

IW'"'--") 

174 


OUR  WORLD. 


Cayugn,  (N.  Y.,)  kay-yoo'gnh. 
Celebes,  sel'e-becs. 
Cenis,  sen'ee. 

Ceiilipeile,  sen'tc-peed,  ("A  hun- 
dred feet.") 
Ceplialonia,  scf-ah-lo'nia. 
Cette,  set. 
Cevennes,  s!iv-ven'. 
Ceylon,  se-lon'. 

Chagrei!,  (Panama,)  shah'gress. 
Chalet,  shal'lay. 
Chalons,  (France,)  shah-lawn'. 
Chamois,  sham'niey. 
Cliaini)agne,  sli.im-panc'. 
Clmmplain,  sham-plane'. 
Chartres,  (France,)  shar'tr. 
Chat-ta-hoo'chee. 
Chat-ta-noo'ga. 
Che-raw'  (S.  C). 
Cherbourg,  sher'boorg. 
Ches'a-pcake. 
Chev'l-ot 

Cheyenne,  shey-cn'. 
Chicago,  she-kaw'go. 
Chi'goe. 
Chihuahua,  (Mexico,)  che-wah'- 

wah 
Chili,  chil'le. 
Chil-li-co'the  (Ohio). 
Chiloe,.  chelo-ay'. 
Chiml)orazo,  chira-bo  rah'zo. 
Chincha,  chin'chah. 
Cliin-chil'la. 
Chi|)|)ewa,  chip'pe-waw. 
Chowan'  (N.  C). 
Christiania,  kris-te-ah'nia. 
Chrys'alis,  Cpl  )  ehrys'a-lids  or 

chry-sal'i  (ies. 
Chudleigh,  chnd'lee. 
Chnqnil)amba,chew-ke-bahm'hah. 
Cienfuegos,  (Cuba,)  see-cn  tway'- 

gos. 
Cinchona,  sin-ko'na. 
Cincinnati,  sin-sin-nat'te. 
Circassia,  sir-kash'e-ah. 
Ciudad  Real,  (Spain,)  theoodad' 

ray'al. 
Civita  Veechia,  che'vee-tah  vek'- 

ki-a. 
Cobija,  ko-bec'hah. 
Cob'lentz. 
Cobra,  ko'l)rah. 
Coca,  ko'cah. 

Cochabamba,  ko-chah-bahm'bah. 
Cochineal,  kotch'e-neel. 
Cock-a-too'. 
Co-coon'. 
Coinibra,     (Portugal,)    ko-eem'- 

brah. 
Cologne,  ko-lone'. 
Co'orado,  kol-o-rah'do. 
Comayagua,  ko-may-ah'gwah. 
Co-nian'ches. 
('o'mo. 
Com'or-in. 

Confucius,  Con-fu'shus. 
Connecticut,  kon-nct'e-kut. 
Coo'lie.  ^*»^ 

Co|)enhagen,       ko-pen-hah'ghcn, 

("Trading  port.") 
Coquimbo,  ko-kecm'bo. 
Cor'do-viU 
Co-re'a. 

Cordilleras,  kor-dil-y ay 'ras. 
Cor'fu. 
Cor'inth. 
Cor'mo-rant. 
Cor-ral'. 

Cor-ri-en'tes,  (  "Currents.") 
Cor'tez. 
Costa    Rica,      kos'tah    rce'kah, 

("  Rich  coast.") 
Cote  d'Or,  kote  nor. 
Crimea,  krim-ce'ah. 
Cronstadt,  (Rus.sitv,)  kronc'stadt, 

(King's  town.") 
Cuenca,  kwen'kah. 
Cuirass,  kwe'rass. 
Cumana,  koo-mnh-nah'. 
Curacao,  koo-rah-sow'. 
Cuzco,  koos'ko. 
Cyclades,  sik'lah-<lce/,. 
Czar,  zar. 


D. 

Dahomey,  dah-ho'mny. 

Dainiio,  dah-e-me'yo. 

Dakotah.  dah-ko'tah. 

Dalles,  dalz. 

Damascus,  dah-mas'kus. 

Dani-i-et'ta. 

Dant'zic. 

Danube,  dan'yoob. 

]  )ardanelles,  uar-<lay-nelz'. 

Darfnr,  (Sahara,)  dar-foor'. 

Darien,  day're-cn. 

Darius,  day-ri'us. 

Darni'stadt. 

i)uv'en-port. 

Debreczin,  dav-bret'sin. 

Dec'can,  ("The  South.") 

Del'a-ware. 

Delhi,  del'le. 

Des  Moines,  day'mwan. 

De-troit',  ("  A  strait.") 

Devonshire,  dev'on-<liecr. 

Dhavalagiri,  dah-vali  lah-gee're. 

Diamantina.     (Brazil,)       dee-ah- 

mahn-tee'nah. 
Dieppe,  dee-op'. 
Dijon,  dee-zhon'. 
Dnieper,  nee'per. 
Dniester,  nees'ter. 
Doge,  dozh. 

Dominica,  do-men'c-kah. 
Domrcmy,  donic-ray'mey. 
Douro.  tloo'ro. 
Dovretield,  dov'reh-ficld. 
Drave,  drahv. 
Dres'den. 

Drogheila,  (Ireland,)  drog'c-dah. 
Drontheim,  (Norway,)  dron'time. 
Dub'lin. 

Dubuque,  doo-book'. 
Dulces,  doolses. 
Dulse,  dulss. 
Dumfries,  dum-freez'. 
Dundalk,  dun-dawk'. 
Dun-dee'. 
Dun-ferm'line. 
Dun'kirk. 
Dus'sel-dorf. 
Dvi'na. 


Ecuador,  ck-wah-dor'. 

Kd'inJ)urgh. 

Kgypt,  e'jipt. 

Klirenbreitstcin,  ch-ren-brite'- 

siine,  ("Broad  stoneof  honor.") 
Kider,  i'der. 
Ekaterinenburg,  ay-kat-er-ee'nen- 

burg. 
Elba,  el'bah. 
Elbe,  elb'er. 
Elgin,  el'ghin. 

El  Uran  Chaco,  elgrahn  chah'ko. 
El  Paso,  el  ])ah'so. 
El.sinore,  el-se-nore'. 
E'mu. 

England,  ing'glund. 
E])ernay,  ci)-er-nay'. 
Erie,  ee're. 

Erzgebirge,  airtz-gho-beer'ghe. 
Espirito  Santo,  (Cuba,)  css-pcer'- 

e  too  sahn'too. 
Espinha<;o,  cs-pin-hah'so. 
Pisquimaux,  es'ke-mo. 
Enna-lyp'tus,  (pi.)  i. 
Euphrates,  yoo-lray'teez. 
Kutaw,  (S.  A.,)  yoo'taw. 
Ev'cr-glade. 


Fahrenheit,  fah'ren-hitc. 
Fakir,  fay'ker. 
Falkland,  fawk'land. 
Falmouth,  ( England,)  fal'muth. 
Farina,  fali-ree'nah. 
Faroe,  fah'ro. 
una,  faw'nah. 
ayal,  fi-awl'. 


Feudal,  fu'dal. 

Fezztin,  tez-zahn'. 

Finisterre,    lin-is-tair',    ("  Land's 

end.") 
I"iord,  fee-ord'. 
Floe,  flow. 
Flo'ra. 

Fontainebleau,  fon-ten-blo'. 
Foo-choo'. 
Fran-co'ni-a, 
Fnizcr 

Fronteras,  fron-tay'rahs. 
Fuu'dy. 
F'usi  Yama,  foo'je  yah'mah. 

a. 

Galapagos,         gah-Iah-pah'gose, 

("  Land-turtles.") 
Ga-le'na. 

Uallinas,  gal-ye'nahs. 
Galway,  gawl'way. 
Gambia,  gahm'bee-ah. 
Gamboge,  gam-boj'. 
Ganges,  gan'jeez. 
Garonne,  gah-ron'. 
Gaucho,  gow'cho. 
Gaul,  gawl. 

GeHe,  (Sweden,)  ghePfl. 
Gcn-e-see'. 
Gcn-e'va. 
Gen'o-a. 

Geral,  hay-rahl'. 
Geyser,  ghy'scr. 
Ghauts,  gawts,  ("  Steps.") 
Gibraltar,  jil>-rawl'tar. 
Gila,  he'lah. 
GirailFc,  je-raf. 
Gironde,  je-rond'. 
Glacier,  glas'e-er. 
Glasgow,  glas'go. 
Gloucester,  glos'ter. 
Gnu,  nu. 

Gua,  (India,)  go'ah. 
Gobi,  go'be. 
Go-dav'er-y  (India). 
Gol-con'da. 
Go-ril'la. 
Goth:i,  go  tab. 
Gottingen,  get'ting-ghen. 
Granada,  grah-nah'dah. 
Greenwich,  grin'idge. 
Grenoble,  gren-ob'l. 
Groningen,  gron'ing-ghen. 
Guadala.xara,  (Spain,)  gwah-dah- 

lah-hali'rah. 
Guadalquiver,  gwah-dahl-kwiv'er, 

(The  "  great  river  ") 
Guadaloupe,  gaw-deh-loop'. 
Guailiana,  gwah-de-ah'nah. 
Guanaco,  gwah-nah'ko. 
Guano,  gwah'no. 
Guardafui,  gwah-dah-fwee'. 
Guarisanker,  gwah-ri-sank'er. 
Guatemala,  g\vah-te-mah'lah. 
Guava,  gwah'vah. 
Guayaquil,  gwi-ah-kecl'. 
Guernsey,  ghern'zc. 
Guiana,  gbe-ah'uah. 
Guinea,  gbin'ne. 
Gutta  Pereha,  gut'tah  per'cha. 
Gyp'sum. 


Haarlem,  har'lem. 

Ilab'i-tat. 

Hague,  haig. 

Hakodadi,  liah-ko dah'de. 

Halle,  (Saxony,)  hal'leh. 

Ilam'burg. 

Ham'mer-fest. 

Han'o-ver. 

Ha'rcm. 

Hat'te-ras. 

Ha-van'a. 

Haverhill,  hay'ver-ill. 

Havre,  hahv'r,  (A  "harbor"  or 

"haven.") 
Havre    de    Grace,     hahv'r    deh 

grahss,  ("Haven  of  thanks.") 


Hawaii,  h  ih-wy'ec. 

Hayti,  liav'te,  ("  Mountainous.") 

Haytieu,  [lay'shen. 

HeidellKrg,  hy'del-bcrg. 

Uel'i  go-land,  (■  Holy  land.") 

Hen-lo'pen. 

Henna,  hen'nah. 

Herat,  her-aht'. 

Her-cu-la'ne-um. 

Herefonl,  ber'eh-ford. 

Hesse-Cassel,  lies' se-kas'sel. 

Himahiya,        him -ah- lab -yah', 

(■•  1  he  abode  of  snow.") 
Hin-dos-tan',   ("  The   land  of 

the  Hindoos.") 
Hoang-Ho, ho-ahng-ho',  ("  Yellow 

river.") 
Ho-bo'kcn. 
Holstein,  hol'stino. 
Hol'y-heud. 
Hol'y-rood. 
Holyoke,  hole'yoke. 
Honduras,  hon-doo'rahs. 
Hong-kong',  ("  Sweet  waters.") 
Honolulu,  hon-o-loo'loo. 
Hoog'ly. 
Hoo'sac. 

Hospice,  hos'piecc. 
Hot'ten-tot. 

Housatonic,  hoo-sah-ton'ik. 
Hous'ton. 

H  ue,  hoo'ay  or  whay . 
Huguenot,  hu'ghen-no. 
Hungary,  hung'ga-re. 


lee'land. 

I'daho. 

I'iex. 

Imaum,  im'awm. 

Inca,  in'kah. 

India,  in'de-ah. 

Indies,  in'jiz. 

In-dian  a. 

In-di-an-ap'o-Iis, 

In'dus. 

Innsbruck,  ins'brook,  ("  Bridge  of 

the  Inn.") 
In'ver-ness. 
lo'ni-an 
Iowa,  i'o-wah, 
Iran,  ee'rahn. 
I  re' I  and. 

Irkutsk,  ir-kootsk'. 
Irawaddy,   ir-ah-wod'do,  ("Great 

river.'  ) 
Ir'tish. 
Isar,  ee'sar. 
I-so-therm'al. 
Ispahan,  is-pa-hahn'. 
I-tas'ea.       , 
Ith'a-ca. 

J. 

Jagnar,  jah'gwah. 

Juniaic.i,  jay-may'kah. 

Japan,  jahpan'. 

Jai)ura,  (S.  A.,)  hah  poo'rah. 

Java,  jah'vali. 

Jeanne  Dare,  zhahn  dark. 

Jesuit,  jez'u-it. 

Joannes,  (S.  A.,)  ho-wan'nes. 

Johannisberg,  yo-hau'nis-burg. 

Jorullo,  ho-rule'yo. 

Juan  Fernandez,  whan-fer-nahn'- 

des. 
Judaja  or  Judca,  jn-dce'ah. 
Juggernauth,  ju^j'gher-naught. 
Julianshaab,  ju'a-ans-harb'. 
Jum'na. 

Jungle,  jun'gl.  ■' 

Juniata,  joone-at'ah. 
Jura,  joo'rah. 
Jut'laud. 


Kalahari,  kah-lah-har'c. 
Kalamazoo,  kal-ali-maz-zoo'. 


Kamtschatka,  kahni-chat'kab. 
Kangaroo,  kang-gah-roo'. 
Kano,  kah'no. 
Kansas,    kan'zas,    ("  Smoky 

water.") 
Kash-gar'. 
Kas-kas'ki-a. 
Ka-tah'din. 
Kearsarge,  keer'sarj. 
Kelat,  ke-laht'. 
Kenat,  kc-naht'. 
Kcnawha,  ke-naw'wa. 
Ken'ne-bec. 
Ken-ti'.ck'y. 
Khan,  kahn. 
Khar-toom'. 
Khiva,  ke'vah. 
Kiachta,  ke-aik'tah. 
Kid'der-min-ster. 
Kilauea,  kc-law-a'nh. 
Kilimanjaro,  kil-e-niahn-jah'ro. 
Kil-lar'ney. 
Kiijlen,  ke-o'len. 
Kioto,  ke-o'to. 
Kirghiz,  kir-gheez'. 
Kissingcn,  kis'sing-ghen. 
Kiusiu,  kew'shew. 
Kohl,  kole. 
Konigsberg,  ken'igs-bcrg, 

("  King's  town.   ) 
Ko'ran. 

Kuka,  koo'kah. 
Kuen-Lun,  kwen'loon. 
Kunchinginga,  koon-chin-jing'- 

ghah. 
Kurdistan,  koor-dis-tahu'. 
Kurile,  koo'ril. 
Kwieh'pak  (Alaska). 


L. 

Labrador,  lab-rah-dor'. 

Labuan,  lah-boo-ahn'. 

Laccadive,  lahk'ka-decT. 

Lacquer,  lak'er. 

Ladoga,  lah-do'gah. 

Lad  rone,  lah-drone'. 

Lagoon,  lah-goon'. 

La  Guayra,  lah-gwi'rah. 

Lama,  lah'mah.  < 

Lamasaries,  lah-mah-sah'rccs. 

Lamoille,  lah-mwahl'. 

Lanc'as-ter. 

Landes,  lahnd. 

Languedoc,  lahn'ghe-dok. 

La  Paz,  lah  paz. 

Lap'land. 

Lar'a-mic. 

La  RochcUe,  lah-ro-shel'. 

Lassa,  lahs'sah. 

Lasso,  lahs'so. 

Lausanne,  (Switzerland, J  lo- 

zabn'. 
Leav'en-worth. 
Leenwin,  lu'win. 
Leeward,  lee'ward  or  lu'urd. 
Leg'horn. 
Leicester,  les'ter. 
Lcipsic,  lipe'sik. 
Leiih,  (Scotland,}  leeth. 
Lena.  Ice'nah. 
Le-vant'. 
I^eyden,  li'dn. 
Lianas,  lee-ah'nahs. 
Li-bc'ri-a. 
Lichen,  li'ken. 
Lichtenlcls,  lik'ten-fels. 
Liege,  leej. 
Lille,  leel. 
Lima,  Ice'mah. 
Linnieus,  lin-nce'us. 
Linnhe,  (Scotland,)  lin'neh. 
Linz,  lintz. 
Lipari,  lee-pah're. 
Lis'bon. 
Liv'er-jjool. 
Llano  Estacado,  I'yah'no  cs-tah- 

kah'do,  ("  Staked  Plain.") 
Llanos,  I'yab'nos,  ("  Plains.") 
Lof-fo'den. 
Loire,  Iwahr. 
Lom'bar-dy. 


I 


PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


175 


% 


Lo'mond. 

London. 

Los  .\nf;eles,  los  an'jeh-les. 

Lou-i-si-an'a. 

Lon'is-ville. 

Louvre,  loov'r. 

LowV'lL 

Lu'Ik'c. 

Lucerne,  loo-sern' 

Luck'now 

Lu]>i\tii,  loo-pah'tali. 

Lux'em-burfj. 

Luzon,  loo-zon'. 


M. 

iMiicassar,  mah-kahs'sar. 

.Maikenzic,  inah-ken'ze. 

Mackinaw,  mak'inaw. 

.Ma'con. 

Mad-a-gas'car. 

Mad'der. 

Madeira,  mahdaj'rah. 

Madras,  mah-drass'. 

Ma-drid'. 

Maydalena,  mag-dah-lay'nah. 

Ma-'do-burg. 

Magellan,  nnih-jel'lan. 

Maggiore.  niahd-jo'ray. 

Maimatehin,  nii-niali-cheen'. 

Majorca,  raah-jor'kah. 

Mal-a-l)ar'. 

Ma-lac'ca. 

Malacliite,  raal'ah-kite. 

Mal'a-ga. 

Millar,  may'lar. 

Ma-lay'. 

Maldive,  mal'deev,   ("Thousand 

isles.") 
Mrilstroni,  mayl'stnim. 
Malta,  mawl'tah. 
Managua,  mali-nah'gwah. 
Man'ehes-tcr. 
Mandarin,  man-dah-rcen'. 
Manhattan,  nian-hat'tn. 
Man-il'a. 
Man-i-to'ba. 
Mannheim,  raau'himc. 
Man-tchu'ria. 
Maii'tn-a. 

Maraeaibo,  mah-rah-ki'bo. 
Mar-an-ham'  (S.  A.). 
Mar-i-po'sa. 

Mar'nio-ra,  ("  Marble.") 
Marne,  mam. 
Marcjuesas,  niar-kay'sas. 
Marquette,  mar-ket'. 
Marseilles,  mar-saylz'. 
Martinique,  mar-te-neek'. 
Mat-a-mo'ras. 
JIatanzas,  mah-tan'zah«. 


# 


-♦8 


Mate,  mah-tay'. 

Matsmai,  mats-mi'. 

Mauch   Chunk,   (Penn.,)  mawk 

chunk'. 
Mauritius,  maw-rish'us. 
Mazatlan,  (Mexico,)  matz-at'lahn. 
Mecca,  mek'kah. 
Mechlin,  mek'lin. 
Medina,       mcd  ee'nah,       ("The 

Cit/.") 
Med-i-ter-ra'nc-an,  ("  Midst  of  the 

land.") 
Meerschaum,  meer'shawm. 
Menam,  may-nahm',  ("  Mother  of 

waters.") 
Meissen,  (Saxony,)  my'sen. 
Mel'boume. 
Memphis,  mem'fiss. 
Memphremagog,     mem-fre-may'- 

Menai,  me-nay'  or  mcn'i. 

Mendocino,  mcn-do-see'no. 

Mequinez,  mek'c-nez. 

Mer'ri-mac. 

Mer'thyr  Tyd'vil  (Wales). 

Me-sop-o-ta'mi-a. 

Mes'quit. 

Messina,  mes-see'nah. 

Mctz,  mets. 

Meuse,  muze. 

Miako,  mc-ah'ko. 


Miami,  (Ohio,)  me  ah'me. 

Mieli'el  An'ge-Io. 

Mich'i-gan. 

Mikado,  nie-kah'do. 

Milan,  mil'an. 

Mil'ledge-ville. 

Milwaukee,  mil-waw'kee. 

Min'a-ret. 

Min-nc-ap'o-lis. 

Minneluiha,  min-ne-hah'hali. 

Min-ne-so'ta. 

Min-or'ca  (Mediterranean).  ' 

Miqnelon,  mik'eh-lon. 

Mis-sis-sip'pi,    ("Father   of    wa- 
ters ") 

Mis-soii'ri,  ("  Muddy  river.") 

Mobile,  mo-beel'. 

Mocha,  nio'kah. 

iMo'ile-na. 

Mo-gul'.  ^    \ 

Moham'med. 

Mo'hawk. 

Mo  he'gans, 

Moldau,  niol'do. 

.Mol-da'via. 

Mol'lusk. 

Mo-lnc'cas. 

Mo-nad'nock 

Mon-go'lian. 

Mo-non-ga-he'la. 

Mon-ro'via. 

Montana,  mon-tah'nah. 

Montauban,  moii'to-bahn. 

Mon-tauk'. 

Mont       Blanc,      mawn    blahng, 
("  White  Mountain.") 

Monterey,  mon-tcr-ay',   ("  Royal 
mountain.") 

Monte  Rosa,  mon'tay  ro'sah. 

Montevideo,  mou-tay-vid'eo, 

("  Mount  Prospect.") 

Montezuma,  mon-tay-zu'mah. 

Mont-gom'er-y. 

Montmorenei,  mont-mo-ren'se. 

Mont|X!lier,  mont-peel'yer. 

Montreal,  mont-ray-awl/,("  Royal 
Mount.") 

Montserrai,    (W. 
raht' 

Mo-rainc'. 

Mo-roc'co. 

Mor'mon. 

Moscow,  mos*!t». 

Moselle,  mo-zel'. 

Mosque,  ij^sk. 

Mount  Desert,  mount  de-zert', 

Mozambique,  mo-zara-beck'. 

Mufti,  muf'te. 

Munich,  mu'nik  or  mflm'nik. 

Miis-eat'. 

Muscatine,  mus-ka-teen'. 

Muskingum,  mus-king'gii?n. 

Mus'yi^. 


vN.    ^    * 

Nacogdoches,  (Tcxas,^  nak-o-do'- 
/'*<ihiz    "\  ., 

Tvagasaki,  nah-gah-sjCh'ke. 
Na'mur.  ^ 

Nanking,  nahn-king',  ("  Southern 

capital.") 
Nanling,  nahn-ling',   ("  Southern 

mountain.") 
Nantes,  nantz. 
Nan-tuek'et. 
Naphtha,  nap'thah. 
Narbonne,  ("France,)  nar-bon'. 
Nar-ra-gan'sctt. 
Nashua,  nash'yoo-ah. 
Nash'ville. 
Nassau,  nas'saw. 
Natal,  nahtah!'. 
Natcliez,  natch'iz. 
Natchitoches,  (Louisiana,)  natch- 

c-totch'iz  or  nak'e-tosh. 
Nebraska,  ne-bras'kah,  ("Flat 

water.  "^ 
Neek'ar. 

Nepaul,  ne-pawl'. 
Ner-bud'dah. 


l.,J    hjont-scr- 


A 


Nertschinsk,  (Siberia, J  nert'- 

shinkz. 
Ncth'er-lands. 
Neufchatel,  uush-ah-tel'. 
Neuse,  nuce. 
Neva,  (Russia,)  nay'vah. 
Nevada,  nay-vah'dah. 
Neve',  nev'ey. 

Nevers,  (France, J  ney-vair'. 
Newark,  nu'ark. 
New'bu-ry-port. 
Newfoundland,  nu'fnnd-land. 
New  (iranada,  nu  grah-nah'dah. 
New  Hami>sbirc,  nu  hamp'sheer. 
New  Ilernnbut,  nu  hcrn'hoot. 
New  Orleans,  nu  or'le-ans. 
New  Wcst'min-ster. 
New  Zealand,  nu  zce'land. 
Niagara,  ne-ag'ali-rah,   ("Thun- 
der of  waters.") 
Nicaragua,  uik-ah-rah'gwah. 
Nice,  neeee. 
Niger,  ni'jer,  ("  The  great  dark 

river.") - 
Niu'e-veh. 
Ning-po'. 
Niphon,  nee'pon. 
Nismes,  rieem. 
Nijiiei  No\  gorod,  nizh'ne  nov-go- 

rod'. 
Nor'man-dy. 
Norwich,  (U.  S.,)  nor'ritch  or 

nor'witch. 
Norwich,  (Eng.,)  nor'rij. 
Notre  Dame,  not'r  dam. 
Nova  Scotia,  no'vali  sko'she-ijh, 

("New  Scotland.") 
No'va  Zem'bia,  ("  New  land>") 
Nubia,  noo'be-ah. 
Nueces,  (Texas,)  nway'ses. 
Nu'rem-bcrg. 
Nyanza,    (Albert   and   Victoria,) 

ne-ahu'zah. 
Nyassa,  ne-ahs'sah. 


Oahn,  (Sandwich  Isles, )  wah-hoo. 
'OasSs,  o'a-sis. 
E  OaVaca,  (Mexi«^wah-hah'kah. 

O'bi'  V  "^    '  -- 

Occanus,  o-she'a-nus. 

Oceaniea,  o-she-an'e-kah. 

Ocnudgec,  ok-raul'ghee. 

O-eo'nee. 

O'der. 

O-des'sa. 

Odyssey,  od'e-se. 

Og'dens-burg  (N.  Y.). 

Ogeeehec,  o-ghee'chee. 

O-hi'o  (Tile  "tieautiful  river  "). 

0-kc-tin-o'kee.  ^ 

Ok-hotsk'. 

Ol'den-burg.  '    , 

O-lym'pi-a.  ' 

0-lyni^)us. 

(Jmaha,  o-maw-haw'. 

0-man'.  \^ 

Onega,  o-nia;'gah-v.    •■,.     •- 

Oneida,  o-ny*9an. 

Onondaga,  on-on-daw'gah. 

Ontario,  on-tay'rejo.     »,   . 

Ontonagon,  on-toh-aw'gon. 

Opelousas,  op-c-loo'sas. 

O-por'to,  (The  "port"). 

Orchil,  or'kil. 

Or'c-gon. 

Or'en-burg. 

O-ri-ent'al. 

Orinoco,  o-rc-no'ko,  ("  The  coiled 
.serpent") 

Ork'neys.    .-• 

Orleans,  (France,)  or'lay-awn. 

Ortegal,  or'tay-gahl. 

Osaka,  o-sah'kah. 

Os-we'go. 

Ottawa,  ot'taw-wah. 

Ot'to-nian. 

Ouse,  ooz. 

Oviedo,  (Spain,)  o-ve-ay'do. 

O-zark'. 


Padre,  pah'dray,  ("  Father.") 

Padua,  pahd'yoo-ah. 

Paducah,  pah-du'kah. 

Pagoda,  pah-go'dah. 

Paisley,  paze'le. 

Palanquin,  pal-«n-keen'. 

Palembang,  (Sumatra,)  pah-lem- 
bahng'. 

Palermo,  pah-Ier'mo. 

Pal'es-tine. 

Palikar,  pal'e-kar. 

Pal-i-sades'. 

I'aWmet'to. 

Pal-my'ra. 

Pani'li-co. 

I'ainpas,  liahm'pahz. 

Panama,  ])alin-ali  inah'. 

Papagos,  ])ah-pah-goce'. 

Papua,  pah'poo-ah. 

Pa-py'rus. 

Para,  pah-rah'. 

Paraguay,  pah-rah-gwi'. 

Parahiba,  pali-rah-e'bah. 

Par-a-mar'ibo. 

Parana,  pah-rah-nah'. 

Paranahiba,  iiah-rah-nah-ce'bah. 

Par'a-site. 

Pariali,  pah're-ah. 

Parime,  pah-ree'may. 

Parina,  ))ah-iee-nah'. 

Par'ma  (Italy) 

Par-nas'sus. 

Par'se^. 

I'ar'the^noh.  » 

l*as-ea-fK>u'Ia.  , 

Pasha,  ^h-shaw'. 

Pas-sa'ic.  «• 

R<s-sa-ma-quod'dy. 

Pat-a-g»Sii-a.         -  ' 

Pa-taps'co. 

Patio,  pah'tee-o. 

Pau,  po.  J  , 

^yv-tuck'et.  ;. 

Pec'ea-ry. 

Pecos,  pay'koce.  .   , 

Pe-king',  ("  Nonham. capital.''')  ' 

Pe'lcw.  ^  , 

Pe-ling',  ("Northern  mountain.") 

Pel-o-pon-nes'us.  f    • 

Pem-i-ge-was'set.  ^ 

Pennine,  pen-neen'. 

Penn-syl-va'ni-a,      ("Penn's 
woods.") 

Pe-nob'scot.  , 

Pcn-sa-co'la. 

Pcn-zance'  (Eng.).  ^__ 

Pe-o'ri-a. 

Pe'cjuod. 

Pernambneo,  per-nahm-boo'ko. 

Perpijjnan,  per-pcen-yan'. 

Peril,  pay-roo'. 

Pefugia,  (Italy,)  pay-roo'jhh. 

l^sth,  pest. 

Pet-cho'ra. 

Pe-t)K)'le-unj.         .    -f       , 

PctropaulovsVy,  pay-tro-pow-lov'- 
sjy>. 

I««adelpliia,  fil-a-del'fe-ah, 
("  City  of  brotherly  love.") 

Pliili]ipine,  fil-lip']ieen. 

Phuenieia,  fee-ne'shc-ah. 

Pituelio,  pce-kah'tcho. 

Pie-o-krtBi      ^  ^~>  ■>-  ' 

Picton,  pik-too'. 

Pied'mont,  ("Foot  of  the  moun- 
tain.") 

Pil»omayo,  pil-ko-mi'o. 

Pimos,  pe-mocc'. 

Pina,  peen'ya.  -:. 

Pisa,  pe'zah. 

Pis-cat'a-qua. 

Pistachio,  pis-tah'sho. 

Pi  tea,  pee-tec'. 

Pizarro,  pe-zar'ro. 

Plateau,  ])lali-to'. 

Plaza,  plaK'sah  or  plah'thah. 

Poitiers,  (France,)  pwah-teer'. 

Po'land,  ("Flat  land.") 

Polder,  jiole'der. 

Polynesia,  pol-e-ne'she-ah, 
("  Many  islands.") 


Pompeii,  pom-pay'ce. 

Pon'cho. 

Pondicherry,  (India,)  pon-de- 

sher're. 
Pontchartrain,  pon-shar-trayn'. 
Pon'ti-ac. 

Popayan,  po-pah-yahn'. 
Pojiocatapetl,    po-po-kat'ah-pet'l, 

("  Smoking  mountain.") 
Porphyry,  ixir'fe-re. 
Port  au  Prince,  por-to-preiiss'. 
Porto  Rico,  por'to  lee'ko,  ("  Rich 

harbor.") 
Port'u-gal. 
Po-to'mac. 
I'otosi,  )io-to-sec'. 
l*oughkee))sie,  po-k^p'se. 
Prague,  jirahg. 
Prairie    dii     Chien,    pray're     du 

slic-ahn',  ("Dog  prairie.") 
Pi'esidio  del  Norte,  pray-see'de-o 

del  nor'tay. 
Prussia,  prush'ia, 
Puebla,  pweb'lah. 
Puerto  Principe,  pwer'to  preen'se- 

pay. 
Piiget,  iiu'jet. 
Pun-jab'. 
Puntas   Arenas,   (L.   California,) 

poon'tahs  ali-ray'nabs. 
Purns,  (S.  A.,)  poo'rooee. 
Pvrenees,  pir'e-neez. 
1^'thon. 


Q. 

Quathlamha,  kwaht-Iahra'bah. 
(Juebee,  kcr-bek',  or  kwe-bek'. 
Quincy,  kwjn'ze. 
■f  Quinine,  kwe-iiine',  or  kwen'ccn. 
Quito,  ke'to. 


Jiaane,,  rah-seen'. 

Ra'di-atesi.  ^ 

Raleigh,  raw'le. 

Ranch  ur  Raiicho,  ralinch,  rahn'- 

cho. 
Rangoon,  rahng-goon'. 
Ranz    des     Vaelics,    ralinz    day 

vahsh. 
Ra])-idan'. 
Raphael,  rahf'ah-el. 
Rap-pa-ban'noek. 
"Raritan,  rar'e-tan. 
Rat'is-bon. 

Ravenna,  rah-ven'nah. 
Reailing,  red'ing. 
Reichpnberg,  ri'ken-burg. 
Rcnnes,  (France,)  ren. 
Reykyavik,  rye'ke-ali-vik', 

("  Smoky  village.") 
Rheims,  ranz. 
Rheinstein,  rine'stine. 
Rhigi,  ree'ghi. 
Rhine,  rine. 

Rhinoceros,  ri-nos'e-ros. 
Rliodes,  rodze. 
Rhone,  rone. 

Rialto,  rc-al'to.  "^ 

Riesengebipge,      fe'sen-ghe-becr'- 

ghe. 
Riga,  ree'gha. 
Riobaniba,  (S.  A.,)  rec-o-bahm'- 

bah. 
Rio  de  La  Plata,  rec'o  day  lah 

plah'tah,  ("  River  of  Silver.") 
Rio  del  Norte,   ree'o  del  nor'tay, 

("  River  of  the  North.") 
Rio    Grande,     ree'o     grahn'day, 

("  Qreat  River.") 
Rio  Janeiro,  r«e'o  jan-ee'ro. 
Rio  Negro,  ree'o  nay'gro,  ("  Black 

River.") 
Roanoke,  ro-an-okc'. 
lie,  ro-shcl'. 
ster,  roteh'es-ter. 
nt. 

er-dam. 
n,  roo'ahn. 


Roam 

i 


176' 


OUR  WORLD. 


^Sk>,  si-o'to. 
HwSjv,  sko'rc-ah. 
ticiitarj,  skoo-tali're. 

Seme;  san.     . 

Sc^a,  scl^ah.*"*^ 

Seiiegal^en'e-gawl 

Sen.rC-gaiu'bia. 

Se'poy. 

Sev'ern. 

Seville,  sev'il. 

Sevres,  sev'r. 

Seychclle,  (I.  Ocean, 

Shanghai,  shang-hi'. 

Shan'non. 

Shas'ta. 

She-boy'gan. 

Sheik,  sheek. 

Shen-an-do'ah. 

Shiraz,  ske-rahz'. 

Si-am'. 

Si-be'ria. 

Sic'i-ly. 

SM'ra. 

Si-er'ra, 

mountain 

peaks.) 
Sierra  Leone,  se-er'rah  lay-o'nay, 

("  Lion  mountains.")  ■• 

Sierra  Madre,  se-er'rah  matl'Sray, 

("  iVIother  mountains.") 
Sierra  Morena,  .sc-er'rali  mo-ray'- 

nah,  ("  Brown  mountains.") 
Sierra  Nevada,  se-er'rali  nay-vah'- 

dah,  ("  Snow  mountains.") 
fffkok,  se-kok'. 
Simplon,  sem'plon. 
Si'na-i. 
Singapore,  sing-gah-pore',  ("  City 

of  lions.") 
Sin'too-ism. 
Sioux,  soo. 
Sit'ka. 

Siva,  seti'vjih. 

Skager    Kack,  skah-gher    rahk'. 
Smyrna,  smer'nah. 
So-co'tra. 
Sofala,  so-fnh'lah. 
S^issms,  (FrSnce,)  swaw-sawn'. 
So-ko'io. 
S«ncfc<i,  fo-no'rah. 

^f'phiaj,  so-fee'ah. 

Sqrata;  so-rah'tah. 

Soudan,  Soo-dan'. 

Spa,  sjjph  or  spaw. 

Sper-ma-ce'ti. 

Spey,  spay. 

Spitzbergen,  spitz-berg'en. 

Sporades,  spor'a-deez. 

Spree,  spray. 

Stanovoi,  (Siberia,)  stah-no-Toy'. 

St.  Albans,  sent  awl'bans. 

St.  Augustine,  sent  aw-gus-teen'. 

Staten  Island,  stat'n  i'land. 

Staunton,  (Vir.,)  stahn'tun. 

St.  Ber-nard'. 

St.  Croix,  sen  krwah'. 

St.  Domingo,  sen  do-ming'go. 

St.  E-li'as. 

St.  Eustatius,  sent  u-stay'shus. 

Steppe,  step. 

Stettin,  stct'tin. 

St.  Genevieve,  sen  jen-e-veev'. 

St.  Got'hard. 

St.  Hel'e-na. 


Kou-man'ia  (Turkey). 
Hoxo,  ro'ho. 
Ru'mi-nant, 
Russia,  rush'ia. 


S. 

Sabine,  sali-bcen'. 

Sabre,  say'bcr. 

Saco,  saw'ko. 

Sacramento,  sak-rah-mcn'to. 

Saffron,  sal'run. 

Saghalien,  sahgah-lee'en. 

Saginaw,  sag'e-naw. 

Saguara,  sah-gwi'rah. 

Sagucnay,  sah^'c-nay. 

Sahara,  sah-hah'rah. 

Saigon,  si-gon'. 

Salamanca,  sah-lah-man'kali. 

Salina,  .sah-lec'uah. 

Salisbury,  sawlz'bury. 

Salonica,  (Turkey,)  sah-lon-ee'- 

kah. 
Salzburg,  salts'burg. 
Samarang,  (Sumatra,)  sah-mah- 

rahng'. 
Samarcand,  sam-ah-kahnd'. 
Sam-o-thracc'. 

San  Antonio,  snhn  ahn-to'ne-o. 
San  Diego,  sahn  dee-a'go. 
San  Domingo,  sahn  do-ming'go. 
Saii-dus'ky. 
Samlwich,  sand'witch. 
San  Kc'l'.po,  san  fay-lee'pay. 
San  Fran-cis'co. 
San  Joaquin,  sabu  whah-keen'. 
San  Jose,  sahn  ho  say'. 
San  Juan,  (Mexico,)  sahn  whahn'. 
San  Leon,  salm  lay'on 
San   Luis  de  Potosi,  sahn  loo-is 

dav  i)o-fo-see'. 
SaifMigucl,  sahn  me-ghel'. 
San  Paulo-de  Loanda,  sahn  pow'- 

lo  day  lo-ahn'do. 
San  Salvador,  sahn  sahl-vah-dor', 

("Holy  Saviour.") 
Saftta      Cruz,    sahn'tah  fcroos', 

("  Holy  Cross.") 
Santa  F^  sahn'tali  fay'.   ("Holy 

faith.")       - 
Sanra    Lucia,    ('>'.  I.),   sahn'tah 

S  sahn'tah  moiv'rah. 

S.i  ,1  .  '.,  ihn'tah  ree'tah.   ' 

Santiago,  sahn-te-ah'go,  ("  Saint 
James.") 

Saonc,  sone. 

Sar'a-ccn. 

Saragossa,  sah-rah-gos'sah. 

Sar-a-to'ga. 

Sar-din'ia. 

Sas-kateh'c-wan,  ("  Swift  cur- 
rent.") 

Saiilt  St.  Marie,  soo  sen  mah'- 
ree,  (St.  Mary's  Falls.) 

Sa-vnn':iah, 

Sax'o-ny. 

Scan-di-na'via. 

SchafThaiisen,  shaf-how'zen. 

Scheldt,  skclt. 

Schenectady,  ske-nek'tah-de. 

Schiedam,  she-dam'. 

Seinde,  sind. 

Schleswig,  shles'vig. 

Schoodic,  skoo'dik. 

Schuylkill,  skool'kiL 


say-shel'. 


'  A  saw, 
rid(;e 


'  applied  to  a 
notched   with 


,  saint  loo'is,  or  sen 


sen  maw-reece'. 


St.  Loui.s 
loo'ee. 
St.  Maurice, 
Stock'holm. 
St.  I'icrre,  sen  pe-air'. 
Stras'burg. 
Strelitz,  stray'litz. 
Stromboli,  strom'bo-le. 
Stutt'gard. 
Sucre,  soo'kray. 
Su-det'ic. 
Suez,  soo'ez. 
Sui'tan. 

Sumatra,  soo-mah'trah. 
Surinam,  soo-ray-nahm'. 
Sus-que-han'na. 
Sutlege,  (India,)  sut'lej. 
Suwanee,  soo-waw'ne. 
Swe'den . 
Swit'zer-land. 
Sydney,  sid'ne. 
^^Syr'a-cusc. 
iSyria,  sir're-ah. 


Tabreej_toh-breez'. 

TSK:on'ic. 

Ta'gus. 

Tahiti,  ta-hc'te. 

Tahlequah,  tah'leXwah. 

Tal-la-has'see. 

Tal-la-poo'sa. 

Tampico,  tahm-pee'ko. 

Tananarivo,  tah-nah-nah-ree'vo. 

Tanganyika,  tahn-ghan-ye'ka. 

Tangier,  tahn-jeer'. 

Tapajos,  (S.  A.,)  tah-pah'hoce. 

Ta-ran'tu-la. 

Tasmania,  taz-may'ne-a. 

Taunton,  tahn'tun. 

Taurus,  taw'rus. 

Teak,  teek.  . 

Teheran,  trfh-her-ahn'. 

Tthuttn tepee,  tay-wahn'tay-pek. 

Teneritfe,  tcn-er-ii''. 

Ten'nes-.see. 

Tequendama,  (S.  A.,)  teh-kwen- 
dali'mah. 

Ter'mite. 

Terre  Haute,  ter-reh  bote',  ( "  High 
land.") 

Tezcuco,  tez-koo'ko. 

Thames,  temz. 

Thebes,  theebz.  * 

Thian-Shan,  te-ahn'shahn,  ("  Ce- 
lestial mountains.") 

Thibet,  te-bet',  or  tib'et. 

Thor,  tor. 

Thun,  tune. 

Ti'bcr. 

Ti-be'ri-as. 

Ticino,  (Switzerland,)  te-che'no. 

Ti-con-der-o'ga. 

Tierra  Caliente,  te-er'rah  kah-le- 
en'tay. 

Tierra  del  Fucgo,  te-er'rah  del 
foo-ay'go,  ("  Land  of  fire.") 

Ti'gris. 

Til-land'si-a. 

Tim-buc'too. 

Ti'mour. 

Titicaca,  te-te-kah'kah. 

Tobago,  (W.  I.,)  to-bah'go. 

To-bolsk'.  ■   ■ 

Tocantins,  to-kahn-teens'. 


*: 


To-le'do. 

Tontjuiri,  ton-keen'. 
To  pe'ka. 
Tor'ne-a. 
To-ron'to. 

Tortugas,  tor-too'gahz,  ("Tor- 
toises.")       ; 
Toulon,  too-lawn'. 
Toulouse,  too-looz'. 
Tour-nay'. 
Tours,  toor. 
Traf-al-gar'. 
Tran-syl-va'nia. 
Trcbizond,  treb'e-zond. 
Tre-pang'. 
Trieste,  tre-est'. 

Trinidad,  trin-e-<lad',("  Trinity.") 
Tripoli,  trip'o-Ie,  ("  Three  cities.") 
Truxillo,   (Honduras,)  troo-heel'- 

Tsetse,  tsev^ 

Tuileries,  tweel'er-ia. 

Tundra,  toon'drah. 

Tunis,  toolnis. 

Turin,  too'rin. 

Turkestan,      toor  -  kes  -  tahn', 

("  Land  of  the  Turks.") 
Tus'ca-ny. 
Tyre,  tire. 
Tyrol,  tir'rol. 

U. 

Ucayale,  (S.  A.,)  oo-kah-yah'ley.. 

Ulra,  oolm. 

Ul'stcr. 

U-lys'ses. 

Um-ba'gog. 

Ungava,  ung-gah'vah. 

Unterwalden,  oon-ter-vahl'den. 

Upernavik,  oo-per-nah'vik. 

Up'sal. 

Ural,  oo'rahl,  or  yoo'rahl. 

Uruguav,  oo  roo-gwi'. 

Utah,  yoo'taw. 

U'ti-ca. 

Utrecht,  yoo'trekt 


Valdai,  vahl'di. 

Valencia,  vah-len'she-ah. 

Valenciennes,  vah-lon'se-en'. 

Val-hal'la. 

Val-l.a-do-lid'. 

Valparaiso,  valh-pah-ri's"o,("  Vale 

of  paradise.") 
Vancouver,  van-koo'ver. 
Van'dals. 
Van    Diemen's    Land,  van  dee'- 

men's  land. 
Vat'i-can. 
Veda,  vee'dah.  ' 

Vega,  vay'gah. 
Venezuela,  vcn-ez-way'lah. 
Venice,  ven'iss. 
Vera  Cruz,  vay'rahTsrooz,  ("  The 

true  cross.") 
Ve-ran'dah. 
Verona,  ver-ro'nah. 
Versailles,  ver-«aylz'. 
Ver'te-brate. 
Ve-su'vi-us. 
Vevay,  vev'ay. 


Vicuna,  ve-koon'ya. 

Vienna,  vc-en'nah. 

Vi'king. 

Villa  Nueva,  (Mexico,)  vil'yah 

noo-a'vah. 
Villa  Kica,  vil-yah  ree'kah. 
Vindhya,  vind'yha. 
Vishnu,  vish'noo. 
I  Vis'tu-la. 
Vizier,  viai^er.  * 

Vosges,  vbub.     , 


Wabash,  waw'hash. 
Wachusett,  waw-cbeo'set. 
Wah'satch.        ;-"    " 
Wallachia,  (Turkey,)  wal-lah'ke- 

ah. 
War'saw. 

Washita,  wosh-e-t4w'. 
Weimar,  \  Germany,^  vi'mar. 
We'ser. 
Wiesbaden,     (Germany,)     vees- 

bah'den. 
Wight,  wite. 
Winnepiscogee,  win-ne-pe-saw'k(j, 

("  Smile  of  the  Great  Spirit.") 
Worcester,  woos'ter. 
Wy'o-ming. 


Xenia,  zee'nc-ah. 
Xeres,  hay-res'. 
Xerxes,  zerk^zeez. 


Yablonoi,  yah-blo-noy'. 
Yakutsk,  (Siberia,)  yah-kootsk'. 
Yang-tse-Kiang,    yahng-tsc-ke- 

ahng',    ("Son  of  the  great 

river  or  sea.") 
Yarkand,  yahr-kahnd'. 
Yazoo,  yah-zoo'. 
Ye'do. 
Yem'en. 

Yenisei,  yen-e-say'ee. 
Yeso,  ya'so. 

Yokohama,  yo-ko-hah'mah. 
Yo-sem'i-te. 
Ypres,  ee'pray. 
Ypsilanti,  yip-se-lan'te. 
Yucatan,  yoo-kah-tahn'. 
Yu'kon. 


^^_^   ico,)  sah-kah-tay'- 

kahs.  ^^^ 
Zambesi,  zahm-bay'ze. 
Zanguebar,  zang-ga-bar*. 
Zante,  zahn'te. 
Zan-zi-bar'. 

Zealand,  zee'land,  ("  Sea-land.") 
Zo-ol'o-gy. 
Zulu,  zoo-loo'. 
Zurich,  zoo'rik. 
Zutphen,  zut'fen. 
Zuyder  Zee,  zi-der  zee',  ("  South 

sea.") 


Cambridge  :  Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  Welch,  Bigelow,  &  Co. 

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